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UNITED STATES

SECURITIES AND EXCHANGE COMMISSION

Washington, D.C. 20549

FORM 10-K

(Mark One)


☒			ANNUAL REPORT PURSUANT TO SECTION 13 OR 15(d) OF THE SECURITIES EXCHANGE ACT OF 1934

For the fiscal year ended December 31, 2025


☐			TRANSITION REPORT PURSUANT TO SECTION 13 OR 15(d) OF THE SECURITIES EXCHANGE ACT OF 1934

For transition period from to

CIRCLE INTERNET GROUP, INC.

(Exact name of registrant as specified in its charter)

Delaware

333-258582

99-2840247

(State or other jurisdiction of
incorporation or organization)

(Commission File Number)

(I.R.S. Employer
Identification Number)

One World Trade Center, New York, NY 10007

(332) 334-0660

(Address, including zip code, and telephone number, including area code, of registrant’s principal executive offices)

Securities registered pursuant to Section 12(b) of the Act:

Title of each class

Trading Symbol

Name of each exchange on which registered

Class A common stock, par value $0.0001 per share

CRCL

New York Stock Exchange

Indicate by check mark if the registrant is a well-known seasoned issuer, as defined in Rule 405 of the Securities Act. Yes ☐ No ☒

Indicate by check mark if the registrant is not required to file reports pursuant to Section 13 or 15(d) of the Act. Yes ☐ No ☒

Indicate by check mark whether the registrant (1) has filed all reports required to be filed by Section 13 or 15(d) of the Securities Exchange Act of 1934 during the preceding 12 months (or for such shorter period that the registrant was required to file such reports), and (2) has been subject to such filing requirements for the past 90 days. Yes ☒ No ☐

Indicate by check mark whether the registrant has submitted electronically every Interactive Data File required to be submitted pursuant to Rule 405 of Regulation S-T (§232.405 of this chapter) during the preceding 12 months (or for such shorter period that the registrant was required to submit such files). Yes ☒ No ☐

Indicate by check mark whether the registrant is a large accelerated filer, an accelerated filer, a non-accelerated filer, a smaller reporting company or an emerging growth company. See the definitions of “large accelerated filer,” “accelerated filer,” “smaller reporting company” and “emerging growth company” in Rule 12b-2 of the Exchange Act.


Large accelerated filer	☐	Accelerated filer	☐
Non-accelerated filer	☒	Smaller reporting company	☐
		Emerging growth company	☐

If an emerging growth company, indicate by check mark if the registrant has elected not to use the extended transition period for complying with any new or revised financial accounting standards provided pursuant to Section 13(a) of the Securities Act. ☐

Indicate by check mark whether the registrant has filed a report on and attestation to its management’s assessment of the effectiveness of its internal control over financial reporting under Section 404(b) of the Sarbanes-Oxley Act (15 U.S.C. 7262(b)) by the registered public accounting firm that prepared or issued its audit report. ☐

If securities are registered pursuant to Section 12(b) of the Act, indicate by check mark whether the financial statements of the registrant included in the filing reflect the correction of an error to previously issued financial statements. ☐

Indicate by check mark whether any of those error corrections are restatements that required a recovery analysis of incentive-based compensation received by any of the registrant’s executive officers during the relevant recovery period pursuant to §240.10D-1(b). ☐

Indicate by check mark whether the registrant is a shell company (as defined in Rule 12b-2 of the Exchange Act): Yes ☐ No ☒

The aggregate market value of the voting and non-voting common equity held by non-affiliates of the registrant, based on the closing price of the registrant’s shares of Class A common stock as reported by the New York Stock Exchange on June 30, 2025 was approximately $37.6 billion.

As of March 5, 2026, the registrant had outstanding 228,100,955, 18,714,651, and nil of shares of Class A, Class B, and Class C common stock, respectively, each with a par value of $0.0001.

DOCUMENTS INCORPORATED BY REFERENCE

Portions of the registrant’s definitive proxy statement for its 2026 Annual Meeting of Stockholders, or Proxy Statement, to be filed within 120 days after the end of the fiscal year covered by this Annual Report on Form 10-K, are incorporated by reference in Part III. Except with respect to information specifically incorporated by reference in this Annual Report, the Proxy Statement shall not be deemed to be filed as part hereof.

Table of Contents


		Page

	PART I
Item 1.	Business	8
Item 1A.	Risk Factors	20
Item 1B.	Unresolved Staff Comments	57
Item 1 C .	Cybersecurity	57
Item 2.	Properties	58
Item 3.	Legal Proceedings	58
Item 4.	Mine Safety Disclosures	58
	PART II
Item 5.	Market for Registrant's Common Equity, Related Stockholder Matters and Issuer Purchases of Equity Securities	59
Item 6.	[Reserved] (formerly Selected Financial Data)	60
Item 7.	Management's Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations	61
Item 7A.	Quantitative and Qualitative Disclosures About Market Risk	83
Item 8.	Financial Statements and Supplementary Data	84
Item 9.	Changes in and Disagreements With Accountants on Accounting and Financial Disclosures	173
Item 9A.	Controls and Procedures	173
Item 9B.	Other Information	173
Item 9C.	Disclosure Regarding Foreign Jurisdiction that Prevent Inspections	174
	PART III
Item 10.	Directors, Executive Officers and Corporate Governance	175
Item 11.	Executive Compensation	175
Item 12.	Security Ownership of Certain Beneficial Owners and Management and Related Stockholder Matters	175
Item 13.	Certain Relationships and Related Transactions, and Director Independence	175
Item 14.	Principal Accounting Fees and Services	175
	PART IV
Item 15.	Exhibits, Financial Statement Schedules	176
Item 16.	Form 10-K Summary	177
	Signatures	178

Glossary

Definitions

We provide this glossary to help those reading this Form 10-K understand the industry and other technical terms that are used in this Form 10-K. For many of these terms, there is no generally accepted definition; in this glossary, we present our definition of such terms as used in this Form 10-K.

•“Arc,” “Arc Network,” or “Arc Blockchain” is our Layer-1 blockchain designed with unique characteristics to bring the world’s leading enterprises, financial institutions, and governments onto the internet financial system.

•“API” or “application programming interface” is a software interface for two or more computer programs or components to communicate with each other.

•“blockchain” and “blockchain networks” are systems in which transactions are recorded across computers linked in peer-to-peer (“P2P”) networks.

•“Circle Applications” are our products and services that facilitate coordination on the internet via digital assets, delivering practical utility to institutions, developers, and end-users.

•“Circle Digital Assets” are our digital assets, USDC, EURC, and USYC, which serve as fundamental units of value for onchain economic coordination.

•“Circle Liquidity Services” are our services that provide institutional minting, reserving, redemption, and foreign exchange services for our stablecoins, supported by our integration with the existing financial system.

•“cross-chain transfer protocol” or “CCTP” is a protocol that enables USDC to flow securely between blockchains.

•“cryptography” is the process of encrypting and decrypting data.

•“digital wallets” are electronic devices, online services, or software programs that allow one party to make electronic transactions with another party bartering digital currency units for other digital assets, goods, and services.

•“distributed computing” is the process by which multiple computers work together to solve computational tasks.

•“electronic money token” or “e-money token” means a type of digital asset that purports to maintain a stable value by referencing the value of one official currency.

•“gas fee” is the fee required to conduct a transaction or execute a contract on a blockchain.

•“interoperability” is the ability of different blockchains to exchange information and work together frictionlessly.

•“Layer-1 blockchain” is the foundational blockchain that provides essential services like recording transactions and ensuring security.

•“meaningful wallets” or “MeWs” are onchain digital asset wallets holding $10 or more of USDC.

•“neo-bank” is a financial technology firm that offers apps, software, or other technologies to streamline mobile and online banking, which may or may not possess a traditional banking license.

•“onchain apps” are software applications that use digital assets and smart contracts and deliver services using blockchain networks.

•“onchain transactions” are transactions that are carried out on the blockchain from start to finish. We measure onchain transactions by parsing and querying transaction data from blockchains that support USDC.

•“on-ramps” and “off-ramps” are channels between fiat currency and stablecoins.

•“payment stablecoins” are stablecoins that (i) are designed to maintain a stable value relative to a reference fiat currency on a one-for-one basis, (ii) can be redeemed for such reference fiat currency on a one-for-one basis, and (iii) are backed by assets held in a reserve that are considered low-risk and readily liquid with a value in such reference fiat currency that meets or exceeds the redemption value of the stablecoins in circulation.

•“private key” is a string of letters and numbers that allows a person to access and manage his/her digital assets in a digital wallet or other custodial solution, similar to a password.

•“programmability,” with respect to money or digital assets, occurs when rules that define or constrain usage can be embedded into the money or digital asset.

•“rails” are the underlying infrastructure and systems that facilitate the transfer of value between parties.

•“secured overnight financing rate” or “SOFR” is a benchmark interest rate published by the Federal Reserve Bank of New York that reflects the cost of borrowing cash overnight collateralized with US Treasury securities, used as an alternative to the London Interbank Offered Rate (LIBOR).

•“smart contracts” are programs built on blockchain networks that automatically execute certain actions when a predefined set of criteria are met.

•“stablecoin” is a digital asset whose value is designed to track the price of an underlying asset or another unit of value.

•“superapp” is an application that offers multiple services and features within a single platform.

•“TMMF” or “Tokenized Fund” is an onchain, tokenized representation of a traditional money market fund.

SPECIAL NOTE ABOUT FORWARD-LOOKING STATEMENTS

This Annual Report on Form 10-K contains statements that are forward-looking statements. All statements other than statements of historical facts contained in this Annual Report on Form 10-K, including statements regarding our future results of operations and financial position, business strategy, technology, and plans and objectives of management for future operations, are forward-looking statements. Many of the forward-looking statements contained in this Annual Report on Form 10-K can be identified by the use of forward-looking words such as “anticipate,” “believe,” “could,” “expect,” “should,” “plan,” “intend,” “estimate,” “will,” and “potential,” among others. Forward-looking statements are based on our management’s beliefs and assumptions and on information currently available to our management. Such statements are subject to risks and uncertainties, and actual results may differ materially from those expressed or implied in the forward-looking statements due to various factors, including, but not limited to, the following:

•intense and increasing competition, including competition from new and existing issuers offering competing products;

•periods of uncertainty, loss of trust, or systemic shocks resulting in the potential for rapid redemption requests (or runs), and extreme scenarios, such as market shocks that affect the value of USDC’s reserves or simultaneous requests to redeem all or substantially all USDC in circulation;

•operational challenges and risks, including due to surges in demand;

•negative publicity regarding stablecoins or the broader digital asset industry;

•disruptions in secondary marketplaces that facilitate the purchase and sale of Circle stablecoins;

•the GENIUS Act, which will change the payment stablecoin ecosystem and may affect our business in ways that cannot yet be known;

•risks associated with the issuer, the manager, and the custodian of the Circle Reserve Fund;

•significant disruption in our or our third-party service providers’ or partners’ technology;

•our or our third-party service providers’ ability to adequately safeguard our customers’ funds and digital assets;

•our inability to maintain existing relationships with financial institutions and similar firms or to enter into new such relationships;

•credit risks in respect of counterparties, including banks and other financial institutions;

•our inability to maintain existing distribution and partnership arrangements or enter into additional distribution or partnership arrangements on less favorable financial terms;

•exploitation by our customers, employees, service providers, and other third parties to facilitate illegal activity such as fraud, money laundering, terrorist financing, gambling, tax evasion, and scams;

•our compliance and risk management methods which may not be effective;

•fluctuations in interest rates;

•extensive and highly evolving regulatory landscape;

•the regulatory environment to which we are subject, which gives rise to various licensing requirements, significant compliance costs and other restrictions;

•laws, regulations, and executive orders regarding economic and trade sanctions, anti-bribery, AML, and counter-terrorism financing that could impair our ability to compete in international markets or subject us to criminal or civil liability if we violate them; and

•other factors disclosed in the “Risk Factors” section in Part I, Item 1A of this Annual Report on Form 10-K.

Because forward-looking statements are inherently subject to risks and uncertainties, some of which cannot be predicted or quantified and some of which are beyond our control, you should not rely on these forward-looking statements as predictions of future events. The events and circumstances reflected in our forward-looking statements may not be achieved or occur, and actual results could differ materially from those projected in the forward-looking statements. Moreover, we operate in an evolving environment. New risk factors and uncertainties may emerge from time to time, and it is not possible for management to predict all risk factors and uncertainties. Except as required by applicable law, we do not plan to publicly update or revise any forward-looking statements contained herein, whether as a result of any new information, future events, changed circumstances, or otherwise. You should read this Annual Report on Form 10-K and the documents that we have filed as exhibits to the Annual Report on Form 10-K completely and with the understanding that our actual future results may be materially different from what we expect.

PART I

Item 1. Business

Overview

Our mission is to raise global economic prosperity through the frictionless exchange of value.

We were founded in 2013 on the belief that we could connect the world more deeply by building a new global economic system on the foundation of the internet, and facilitate the creation of a world where everyone, everywhere can share value as easily as we can today share information, content, and communications.

Financial services are undergoing a transition analogous to the internet’s evolution from closed networks to open, standardized infrastructure that enabled new applications, business models, and network effects. While the incumbent financial system has enabled substantial global economic activity and societal advancement, it remains constrained by legacy infrastructure and fragmented, intermediated networks that pass on excessive cost, slow settlement, limit interoperability, and create barriers to access. At the same time, these constraints create a significant opportunity to modernize how value moves — unlocking faster settlement, lower costs, greater interoperability, and broader access at internet scale. We believe digital assets, public blockchain networks, and related applications and services can address these constraints and seize the opportunity available by enabling the secure, efficient storage and transfer of value on the internet that is scalable and accessible.

Our platform, anchored by our stablecoin network, plays a critical role in the emerging internet financial system. We are building one of the largest and most widely used full-stack, internet financial platform businesses. The value of our platform grows as more companies and developers connect into our network and build upon our infrastructure, creating products and services that enhance utility, expand distribution, and so add value to the network.

Our Platform

Our full-stack, internet financial platform business is organized around three pillars:

•Arc Blockchain and Developer Infrastructure, consisting of our open, Layer-1 blockchain network purpose-built to bring real world economic activity onchain, and related developer tools and interoperability infrastructure;

• Circle Digital Assets and Services, which includes our Circle Digital Assets, USDC, EURC, and USYC, as well as Circle Mint and xReserve, our related liquidity, custody, and trust infrastructure; and

•Circle Applications, which includes Circle Payments Network (“CPN”) and StableFX, applications that use Circle Digital Assets to deliver real-world utility on the Arc Network and across the broader multichain ecosystem.

While we historically have been most closely associated with payment stablecoins and our revenue is primarily driven by reserve income earned on the assets backing such stablecoins, our strategy is to build the products and services that enable individuals and enterprises to exchange value using open networks, in a safe, trusted and regulated manner, fully integrated with the existing financial system.

The three pillars of our platform are designed to reinforce one another: Arc is expected to provide an enterprise-grade foundation for stablecoin finance and economic activity at internet scale; Circle Digital Assets and related services supply trusted units of value and liquidity infrastructure; and Circle Applications translate that infrastructure into real-world utility for institutions, developers, and end-users.

Thousands of companies participate on our platform, providing products and services that integrate with our stablecoin network in a variety of ways, including consumer wallets and applications that allow end-users to hold and use our stablecoins, AI agents and agentic applications that can autonomously initiate and execute transactions, manage payments, and interact with onchain protocols, digital asset exchanges that enable trading of our stablecoins with other digital assets and fiat currencies, and traditional exchanges and clearing houses who are exploring stablecoin use cases. Our platform also includes regulated digital asset custodians that support institutional storage and safekeeping, blockchain networks on which our stablecoins are supported natively, and onchain protocols that provide financial and commercial building blocks such as exchange, lending, payments, and treasury functionality. In addition, banks and neo-banks provide settlement and reserve infrastructure and increasingly use stablecoins in their own offerings. Likewise, payments companies integrate stablecoin settlement into their products and services, including processors, card networks, and remittance providers. Finally, market makers and over-the-counter liquidity providers play a critical role in supplying stablecoin liquidity across global venues and local currency markets, helping make our stablecoins broadly accessible.

Our platform has key advantages that differentiate us from traditional payment systems and networks, alternative stablecoin issuers, and technology startups providing tools and services to blockchain developers. In particular:

•Our platform dramatically increases the speed and scale of traditional forms of money to improve global finance – Our platform harnesses the power and efficiency of the internet to dramatically increase the speed and scale of traditional forms of money, supporting all money use cases, including remittances, payments, digital asset markets, and capital markets. Our platform introduces new properties like programmability to enable new application types and support network effects as usage grows.

•Our platform is anchored by strong circulation, liquidity, and interoperability of USDC – With more than $75 billion in circulation as of December 31, 2025 and daily transaction volumes regularly topping $10 billion in 2025, USDC has established a global presence that new entrants cannot easily match. USDC has the greatest interoperability, integrated natively on 30 public blockchains, and we will continue to add USDC to new chains. We believe our strong circulation and liquidity, coupled with our ability to interoperate with, and be supported by, many of the most used blockchains will enable our platform to scale more rapidly than our competitors.

•Our full-stack platform benefits from broad distribution enabling meaningful network effects – Because of our market neutral infrastructure and 24/7/365 availability, many of the world’s most respected financial institutions and enterprises are building on our platform, enabling global mainstream adoption and network effects as our platform delivers increased utility.

•Our platform benefits from deep fiat integration – USDC is deeply integrated with the existing financial system, with banking integrations natively in more than 185 countries, providing global accessibility within local financial systems. Since 2018, we have facilitated more than $53.3 trillion between the traditional banking system and digital payment rails. As a regulated dollar stablecoin, USDC has the deepest integration with the existing financial system, with significant scale for institutions accessing the internet financial system.

•We have built our company with a regulation-first philosophy – We have always operated with a regulation-first philosophy. As stablecoin and digital asset regulations come online in major jurisdictions (including the United States), our platform allows partners to build products and services with confidence and without first building regulatory and compliance infrastructure. These practices support efficiency, safety, and broad institutional adoption.

•We are committed to transparency and trust – We publish regular reporting and third-party assurance regarding reserve composition and stablecoins in circulation, and disclose minting, redemption, and reserve balances. We hold ourselves to the high audit standards of a U.S. public company, reinforcing our commitment to trusted reporting and disclosure. Transparency is an important differentiator that builds trust in our platform.

•Our platform is focused on the needs of third-party developers – Our platform is designed to enable third-party developers to build applications that integrate stablecoins, tokens, and wallets through APIs and related tooling. Our related developer tools, interoperability infrastructure, and Circle Applications simplify the developer and end-user experience, encouraging continued interaction and innovation on our platform.

Arc Blockchain and Related Developer Infrastructure

Arc is designed to serve as the economic operating system of the internet and bring more economic activity onchain. In addition to Arc itself, we offer a suite of developer tools and interoperability services designed to reduce complexity and enable developers and enterprises to build, deploy, and operate consumer-scale applications that deliver and move value across blockchain networks.

Arc Blockchain

Arc is our open, Layer-1 blockchain network purpose-built to unite programmable money and onchain innovation with real-world economic activity. Arc is currently in public testnet. As the economic operating system for the internet, Arc will enable more financial infrastructure layers to become automated, customizable, scalable, and composable. Supported by global ecosystem partners, Arc is designed to provide an enterprise-grade foundation for stablecoin payments, foreign exchange, and capital markets transactions, and to operate as part of a broader, interoperable multichain ecosystem.

Enterprises and institutions encounter several constraints when using public blockchains for financial applications. These include operational complexity of paying transaction fees in volatile native tokens, lack of predictable and fast settlement, and the absence of configurable privacy features. To address these challenges, Arc’s features include:

•Stablecoin-based gas fees – Arc enables gas fees to be paid in stablecoins, including USDC and EURC. This reduces the complexity associated with payment in native tokens, which can be volatile and are hard for traditional businesses to access and store.

•Trusted, Permissioned Validators – Arc’s network will be entirely operated and governed by a trusted and known set of infrastructure validators who are held to very high standards of quality, security, compliance, and operational safeguards. This is a key requirement for mainstream and regulated institutions building on these new blockchain network systems.

•Deterministic settlement finality – Transactions on Arc are irrevocably final within a second. For financial applications needing strong security and predictability, this feature is a key advantage over blockchains that use probabilistic finality, where settlement both takes longer and is never fully guaranteed.

•Custom privacy – Arc allows for configurable privacy, allowing businesses and users to shield transactions from public view, while preserving access for auditability and regulatory compliance.

•Distributed network – While we lead Arc’s initial development, the Arc Network will be operated and governed by a broad, globally distributed set of economic and geographic stakeholders.

Developer Tools

Onchain applications are a major new class of applications enabling innovation across all segments, from finance to e-commerce to gaming and social. However, building and deploying these applications is complex. For developers, crafting simple user experiences that are familiar to and consistent with existing mobile and web applications requires deep familiarity with cryptography and blockchain network integration, and can pose undue security risks for end-users. Companies deploying these applications also require specialized knowledge for deploying and operating smart contracts and blockchain software nodes, also introducing significant security and operational risks. To address these issues, and to help grow the number of onchain applications in the world, we offer a comprehensive suite of products that include:

•Circle Wallets. The most important onchain building block for enabling an internet application is the integration of digital wallet technology into applications. Circle Wallets is our programmable wallet solution that lets developers support the use of digital assets, including Circle Digital Assets, across multiple blockchains by quickly embedding Web-3 enabled, onchain wallets into mobile and web applications. Circle Wallets reduce onboarding friction by supporting familiar authentication patterns and by enabling streamlined user experiences.

•Circle Contracts. Fundamental to the innovation of onchain technology is the ability to write and deploy code that automates interactions with digital assets using smart contracts. Circle Contracts is our smart contract platform that reduces development time and operational and security risks by (i) eliminating the need for developers to learn new coding languages, (ii) reusing existing smart contract templates for the most common tasks and application types, and (iii) streamlining monitoring and administration of smart contracts.

Interoperability Services

We also provide interoperability services that enable developers and enterprises to move USDC efficiently across blockchains and to support more seamless, cross-chain application experiences. These services are designed to enable developers to present users with a more unified USDC experience, including the ability to treat USDC balances across blockchains as part of a single, integrated payment and settlement layer. Our interoperability services include:

•CCTP. End-users need to be able to easily and safely transfer stablecoins across different blockchain networks. This process can be cumbersome, expensive, and slow, and can introduce significant security and financial integrity risks. To address these issues, we launched CCTP, an onchain utility that allows end-users to safely and cost-efficiently transfer USDC from one supported blockchain to another. In March 2025, we launched CCTP V2, a fast version of CCTP that generates transaction fees when a customer elects the fast transfer feature. While nascent, we view CCTP as an important capability and a unique differentiator that will act as a key driver of our future growth.

•Gateway. Because blockchains operate in silos, it is difficult for users holding digital assets on one chain to access those assets on another chain without a series of crosschain bridging steps. This complexity degrades usability and hinders broader adoption. To address these issues, we launched Gateway in July 2025. Gateway is an onchain utility that enables a unified USDC balance that is instantly accessible across supported blockchains. For end-users, this means frictionless, crosschain experiences. For businesses, this enables just-in-time liquidity on supported blockchains, improving capital efficiency.

Circle Digital Assets and Liquidity Services

Circle Digital Assets include our payment stablecoins, USDC and EURC, and our tokenized fund, USYC, our onchain representation of a traditional money market fund (“TMMF”). Circle Digital Assets are the fundamental units of value for onchain economic coordination. Circle Liquidity Services, including Circle Mint and xReserve, provide institutional minting, reserving, redemption, and foreign exchange services for Circle Digital Assets.

Circle Stablecoins

USDC and EURC, our payment stablecoins backed by reserves consisting of highly liquid, price-stable cash and cash equivalents, are the foundation of our platform. USDC and EURC are redeemable on a one-for-one basis for U.S. dollars and euros, respectively, directly from us by Circle Mint’s institutional customers (see “Circle Liquidity Services” for information about Circle Mint) as well as by certain end-users that are not Circle Mint customers in our role as the redeemer of last resort. In addition, all end-users can sell or exchange USDC and EURC in the secondary market. USDC and EURC enable end-users to store value in a digital form and to transact over blockchain networks, allowing for near-instant settlement, at a very low cost, with the reach of the internet. Circle stablecoins are exclusively issued by us, but are widely available through hundreds of different retail and institutional products around the world.

Circle Tokenized Funds

We have operated USYC since our acquisition of Hashnote in January 2025. USYC is a TMMF that is intended primarily for use as collateral in digital asset markets. USYC is an onchain representation of shares in a money market fund and is offered in reliance on an exemption from the registration requirements of the Securities Act.

Unlike payment stablecoins, which are not designed to provide yield, USYC provides yield to token holders derived from the underlying fund’s investments. Market participants have begun, and may continue, shifting collateral practices towards yield-bearing TMMFs because TMMFs can provide yield while maintaining characteristics sought for margin and settlement workflows; however, some issuers of TMMFs may face limitations regarding redemption, multichain interoperability, and integration with payments and settlement rails. USYC is designed to address these considerations through its integration with our platform and our payment stablecoins.

We believe that operating USYC as a TMMF alongside USDC and EURC will position us to support a broader range of institutional trading, treasury, and collateral workflows and enable customers to move efficiently between yield-bearing collateral and payment stablecoins for settlement and trading activity on third-party platforms. Since February 2025, we have issued USYC to eligible non-U.S. customers out of Bermuda under our existing DABA License granted by the Bermuda Monetary Authority (“BMA”) (see “Regulatory Landscape” for information regarding licenses and regulatory requirements).

Circle Liquidity Services

Circle Mint. Circle Mint provides institutional customers with USDC- and EURC-related services, such as minting, redeeming, and sending and receiving to and/or from Circle Mint accounts. Circle Mint also supports the custody of digital assets for eligible institutional customers, enabling them to hold and manage stablecoins and other supported digital assets within their Circle Mint accounts while maintaining robust security and operational controls.

To open a Circle Mint account, prospective institutional customers must apply with required compliance information and documentation about their entity, owners, operations, and intended use, and successfully pass our customer screening processes, including ID verification, KYC, sanctions screening, and suitability checks (e.g., business type and anticipated minting volume). Once enrolled, we offer minting services to Circle Mint customers free of charge. We offer various redemption options for Circle Mint customers, including our basic redemption which is initiated within two business days and is free of charge and our standard redemption which is initiated nearly instantly and for which we charge a nominal fee.

Core to Circle Mint is our integration with the existing financial system in order to provide robust primary liquidity (i.e., facilitating conversions between Circle stablecoins and fiat currency). Together with Circle Mint’s custody capabilities, this infrastructure helps customers manage both the fiat and digital asset sides of their operations. We believe we have built a robust global banking infrastructure, with onboarding at settlement banks that provide the primary market liquidity infrastructure to enable us to flow funds to and from Circle Mint customers to enable on- and off-ramping with Circle stablecoins. They provide multiple rails including 24/7/365 funds flow capabilities (where available). These capabilities are available locally in major financial markets worldwide. We continue to expand the network of banks that provide primary liquidity services to the Circle stablecoin ecosystem.

xReserve. Traditional bridged USDC, which allows users to lock native USDC in a smart contract and mint equivalent bridged USDC on blockchains where USDC is not natively issued or redeemed, has helped bootstrap new ecosystems but remains incompatible with native USDC. Without interoperability between bridged and native USDC, liquidity remains siloed across blockchains, creating inefficiencies, third party risks, and confusion on each transfer. To address this issue, we launched xReserve in November 2025. xReserve is an interoperability infrastructure that enables blockchain teams to deploy their own stablecoins that are redeemable for and interoperable with USDC as an alternative to launching bridged USDC. Participation in xReserve is permissioned and we charge a subscription fee for blockchain teams to use xReserve. By addressing the interoperability issue between bridged and native USDC, xReserve creates unified liquidity, reduces third-party risk, minimizes trust assumptions, and delivers a simpler user experience.

Circle Applications

Circle Applications are application-layer products and services that build on Circle Digital Assets and Arc to deliver practical utility to institutions, developers, and end-users. Our initial focus has been on payments and money movement, through our launch of CPN, alongside the support of developer-oriented products that reduce technical complexity and operational risk for onchain applications.

Circle Payments Network

CPN is a neutral enterprise-grade network that enables banks, PSPs, and enterprises to move money using stablecoins starting with cross-border payments where stablecoins deliver clear advantages in speed, cost and settlement certainty. We launched CPN in May 2025 to extend the utility of our Circle Digital Assets by enabling institutions to originate, route, and settle payments on open blockchain networks on a near-instant, 24/7/365 basis, subject to applicable compliance and risk controls. CPN is designed to support a broad set of money movement use cases including agentic payments, consumer payments, business-to-business payments, remittances, payroll, capital markets settlement, and internal treasury operations.

CPN is designed to enable institutions to embed stablecoin settlement into existing customer-facing and back-office workflows, while maintaining flexibility for new application-layer capabilities. CPN’s governance framework is intended to support safe and compliant participation and to promote operational consistency as we expand corridors, add new participants, and increase activity on the network. In particular, this governance framework requires participants to meet eligibility standards that include, among other things, appropriate licensing, anti-money laundering and countering the financing of terrorism (“AML/CFT” ) compliance, financial risk management practices, and cybersecurity protocols.

We view CPN as a multi-sided network and marketplace-style application layer for money movement that is expected to benefit from network effects as additional institutions, corridors, and workflow integrations are added. We expect CPN’s growth to support broader adoption of Circle Digital Assets, including USDC and EURC, and to create additional onchain activity that may also support adoption of Arc and our developer and interoperability infrastructure.

StableFX

StableFX is our institutional-grade stablecoin foreign exchange engine built on Arc. StableFX is currently in beta. StableFX is designed to enable eligible institutions to access and settle select stablecoin currency pairs on a 24/7/365 basis with onchain settlement and reduced counterparty risk. StableFX will allow counterparties to fund and settle trades through smart contract escrow mechanisms that have configurable, capital-efficient settlement options (e.g., both sides settle or neither does, immediate vs. deferred settlement, etc.) depending on the need of the user. StableFX is designed to simplify access to stablecoin foreign exchange liquidity by reducing reliance on bilateral onboarding and credit arrangements. StableFX is designed to support an expanded set of stablecoin currencies, including USDC, EURC, and certain third-party stablecoins onboarded through our partner program, to increase the breadth of currency coverage available for onchain foreign exchange conversion.

Regulatory Landscape

Our “regulation-first” philosophy

We have always operated with a “regulation-first” philosophy and have built a robust compliance infrastructure. Our compliance program focuses on a wide range of laws and regulations enacted by U.S. federal, state, and local governments, foreign governments, and supra-national regulatory authorities. We are proud to be among the most regulatory-compliant companies in the digital assets industry.

Principal U.S. federal and state regulatory regimes

The laws and regulations to which we are or may be subject are rapidly evolving. Most significantly, on July 18, 2025, President Trump signed into law the Guiding and Establishing National Innovation for U.S. Stablecoins Act (the “GENIUS Act”). The GENIUS Act requires the primary federal payment stablecoin regulators to adopt implementing regulations, and the Act will take effect on the earlier of January 18, 2027 or 120 days after the primary federal payment stablecoin regulators issue any such implementing regulations.

The GENIUS Act

The GENIUS Act establishes the first comprehensive U.S. federal framework specifically tailored to payment stablecoins. The GENIUS Act generally limits issuance of payment stablecoins in the United States to “permitted payment stablecoin issuers” (“PPSIs”) subject to federal or state supervision, and it sets baseline requirements for PPSIs, including reserve composition, timely redemption, financial crime compliance, risk management, consumer protection, disclosures, and examinations. Once effective, the GENIUS Act will also provide that (i) payment stablecoins issued by PPSIs are (A) not securities under federal securities laws and (B) excluded from the definition of “commodity” under the Commodity Exchange Act; and (ii) PPSIs are not investment companies.

The GENIUS Act is important because it will provide clear, nationwide standards for the issuance and use of payment stablecoins in the U.S., which we believe can increase market confidence and support broader institutional adoption. The GENIUS Act’s reserve, redemption, and disclosure requirements align with core elements of our regulation-first approach and our current operating practices. In particular, under the GENIUS Act, payment stablecoins must be fully backed by highly liquid reserves – consisting of central bank balances, cash, demand deposits, short-term treasuries and repurchase and reverse repurchase agreements, certain money-market fund securities, and tokenized versions of these (plus any similarly liquid federal assets regulators approve) – which required reserves are consistent with our present reserve management practices for USDC. See “—Reserve management standard” for information regarding our standards for managing Circle stablecoin reserves. Additionally, we expect the framework to influence market structure by increasing compliance expectations for stablecoin issuers and by establishing stringent conditions under which foreign-issued stablecoins may be offered on U.S. platforms.

Current principal U.S. federal and state regulatory regimes

We are subject to multiple U.S. federal and state regulatory regimes that govern the issuance and transmission of monetary value, including in the form of digital assets, as well as related compliance, consumer protection, and supervisory requirements. Some of these will cease to apply to us once the GENIUS Act is effective, though several will continue to apply to us even after that time. These regimes include state money transmitter licensing and related stored value rules, federal registration as a money services business with the U.S. Treasury Department’s Financial Crimes Enforcement Network, and certain state virtual currency licensing requirements, including those imposed by the New York Department of Financial Services (“NYDFS”) due to Circle Internet Financial, LLC’s holding of a virtual currency license (“BitLicense”). Together, these requirements generally impose obligations relating to recordkeeping and reporting, capital and bonding, customer due diligence and AML/CFT compliance programs, and limitations on the investment and use of customer funds and reserve assets, including requirements to hold reserve assets for the benefit of stablecoin holders and prohibitions on lending, pledging, rehypothecating, or otherwise encumbering those reserves. In addition, we are subject to, or may become subject to, other specialized regimes.

In December 2025, we received preliminary conditional approval from the Office of the Comptroller of the Currency (“OCC”) to establish a national trust bank, First National Digital Currency Bank, N.A. (“Circle National Trust”). Once fully approved, Circle National Trust will operate as a federally regulated trust institution, subject to OCC oversight, and will oversee the management of the USDC reserve according to our reserve management policy. See “—Reserve management standard” for information regarding our standards for managing Circle stablecoin reserves. In addition, subject to regulatory approval, Circle National Trust is expected to offer digital asset custody services to our affiliated entities and, through Circle Mint, to unaffiliated institutional customers.

We also operate in a regulatory environment in which U.S. commodities and derivatives laws may apply to certain digital assets and related transactions, including through the Commodity Futures Trading Commission’s (“CFTC”) jurisdiction over derivatives and its enforcement authority in spot markets for commodities. U.S. securities laws also remain relevant to stablecoins and related products. While the GENIUS Act, once effective, will exclude payment stablecoins issued by PPSIs from the definition of “security” under federal securities laws, until that effective date—and for products outside its scope—we continue to assess our products under existing law and applicable judicial and regulatory interpretations.

Principal non-U.S. regulatory regimes

Outside of the United States, the activities of our foreign affiliates are, or may be, supervised by various financial regulatory authorities. Similar to the United States, the laws and regulations applicable to virtual currency and other digital assets are evolving and subject to interpretation and change. We are constantly evaluating opportunities to expand into jurisdictions in which we currently do not operate. As of December 31, 2025, the following were the principal non-U.S. regulatory regimes applicable to our business and foreign subsidiaries:

•Abu Dhabi Global Market. Circle Internet MEA Ltd. holds a Financial Services Permission license from the Financial Services Regulatory Authority of Abu Dhabi Global Market, the International Financial Centre (“IFC”) of Abu Dhabi, the Capital of the United Arab Emirates, to operate as a money services provider in the IFC.

•Bermuda. Circle International Bermuda Limited holds a DABA license and is regulated by the BMA. Circle International Bermuda Limited issues USYC and offers Circle Mint accounts out of Bermuda, along with other ancillary activities.

•European Union. Circle Internet Financial Europe SAS (“Circle France”) holds a Digital Asset Service Provider (“DASP”) registration and an E-Money Institution (“EMI”) license in France, subject to supervision by the Authorité des Marchés Financiers and the Autorité de Contrôle Prudentiel et de Résolution, respectively. The DASP allows Circle France to custody, transmit, and exchange digital assets, and the EMI license allows Circle France to issue USDC and EURC within the European Economic Area (“EEA”) subject to the Markets in Crypto-Assets Regulation’s (“MiCAR’s”) regulatory obligations for stablecoins or e-money tokens.

•Singapore. Circle Internet Singapore Pte Ltd. holds a Major Payments Institution License (“MPI”) and is regulated by the Monetary Authority of Singapore (“MAS”). The MPI allows us to operate as a Digital Payment Token Services Provider to conduct payment/digital payment token (“DPT”) services, including those related to account issuance, domestic, and cross-border and DPT services, which includes the offering, resale, and custody of USDC.

•United Kingdom. Circle UK Trading Limited holds an Electronic Money Issuer license with the UK Financial Conduct Authority (“FCA”).

Other Regulatory Requirements

We are subject to extensive and evolving regulatory requirements, including requirements relating to AML/CFT compliance, economic and trade sanctions, anti-bribery and anti-corruption, data privacy and information security, consumer protection, unclaimed property, taxation and tax reporting, and other supervisory and compliance obligations. We maintain policies, controls, and governance processes designed to support our compliance with applicable AML/CFT and economic sanctions laws and regulations, including risk-based customer and transaction screening, transaction monitoring and suspicious activity reporting, and the ability, where appropriate, to restrict interaction with persons and entities that are the subject of economic sanctions, sanctioned jurisdictions, or blockchain and wallet addresses. We also maintain compliance programs designed to address anti-bribery and anti-corruption requirements and other regulatory expectations applicable to our operations and our relationships with government entities. We are also subject to specialized regulatory regimes, and our operations may be indirectly affected by regulatory requirements imposed on our banking and financial institution partners, including audit, cybersecurity, privacy, and business continuity expectations. We operate information security and privacy programs designed to protect sensitive data and support the safe operation of our products and services, and we monitor changes in law and regulation that could increase compliance costs, affect product design, or otherwise impact our business.

For further discussion of how domestic and global regulations may impact our business, see Item 1A “Risk Factors—Risks related to government regulation”.

Reserve Management Infrastructure

Sound reserve management is central to our operations.

Our platform benefits from the strength, operating resiliency, and risk management capabilities of the leading financial institutions that are part of our reserve management infrastructure. We hold reserves in a manner designed to ensure liquidity and preservation of reserve assets. See “—Reserve management standard” for information regarding our standards for managing Circle stablecoin reserves. In compliance with applicable laws and regulatory guidance, we (i) limit Circle stablecoin reserves to highly liquid financial instruments, (ii) hold reserves in accounts that are titled FBO holders of USDC and EURC, respectively, and (iii) do not lend, borrow against, or encumber the reserves.

As of December 31, 2025, we held approximately 88% of USDC reserves in the Circle Reserve Fund, a government money market fund pursuant to Rule 2a-7 under the 1940 Act managed by BlackRock and available only to us. The assets within the Circle Reserve Fund are held in the custody of BNY. See “Management’s discussion and analysis of financial condition and results of operations—Liquidity and capital resources—Composition of USDC reserves” for additional information regarding the Circle Reserve Fund. The remaining portion of USDC reserves (typically 10-20%) are held as cash in accounts that are titled FBO holders of USDC, primarily with banks designated by the Financial Stability Board as Global Systemically Important Banks (“GSIBs”), which are subject to the highest capital and liquidity requirements and the greatest level of regulatory supervision. A small fraction of USDC reserves is held as cash within several additional banks, which facilitate the flow of funds from reserves to Circle Mint customers. Currently, all EURC reserves are held only in cash.

Core to our reserve management infrastructure is reporting and independent assurance. Since the launch of USDC in September 2018 and EURC in June 2022, we have provided full transparency into assets comprising Circle stablecoin reserves, first on a monthly basis (on our website), then on a weekly basis (also on our website), and now, in the case of the Circle Reserve Fund, on a daily basis (on BlackRock’s website). Furthermore, since USDC’s launch, we have provided the public with independent, third-party monthly assurance over the value and composition of these assets from leading public accounting firms (currently, a Big Four firm), whose reports are available for both USDC and EURC on our website.

Reserve management standard

Our reserve management standard complies with applicable regulatory requirements and supervisory guidance for stablecoin reserves, including the guidelines set forth by NYDFS for USDC reserves and the reserve requirements set forth by the MiCAR for EURC reserves.

Our reserve management standard limits the types of assets that may be included in USDC reserves to (i) U.S. Treasury securities with remaining maturities of three months or less, (ii) cash deposits at global banks, (iii) tri-party reverse repurchase agreements on an overnight basis fully collateralized by U.S. Treasury securities, in which the collateral is market-priced greater than the allocated cash amount at the time of purchase and custodied with a third-party custodian with a minimum credit rating of A, A2, or equivalent as determined by rating agencies, (iv) government money market funds, and (v) other financial instruments including digital tokenized products, where the underlying asset composition of such financial instruments is limited solely to eligible assets set forth in the preceding (i) through (iv).

Our reserve management standard also limits the types of assets that may be included in EURC reserves to (i) cash deposits at global banks, (ii) tri-party reverse repurchase agreements on an overnight basis, over-collateralized by eligible assets that constitute reserve assets under MiCAR, with appropriate margins determined based on then-current market conditions and volatility of the specific eligible assets used as collateral, (iii) euro-denominated sovereign debt securities, (iv) qualifying government bond Undertakings for Collective Investment in Transferable Securities funds, and (v) other financial instruments including digital tokenized products, where the underlying asset composition of such financial instruments is limited solely to eligible assets set forth in the preceding (i) through (iv).

We intend to continue to maintain a reserve management standard that is substantially consistent with our current standard subject to applicable law.

Our reserve management committee, chaired by our Chief Financial Officer and made up of members of senior management, sets reserve management strategy and approves guidelines within which day-to-day reserve management should be conducted, considering among other things applicable regulatory requirements and guidance, reserve asset liquidity, issuer and partner credit risk, and reserve diversification and concentration. Within the guidelines set by our reserve management committee, our reserve management and strategy team, consisting of members from our Treasury function and led by our Treasurer, manages the daily operations of Circle stablecoin reserves.

Treatment of reserve assets

We believe that Circle stablecoins are structured in a manner that entitles the holder to absolute beneficial ownership of the underlying reserve assets, given that we hold only bare legal title to the underlying assets and have no beneficial interest or property rights in such assets. Therefore, the reserve assets backing USDC and EURC, beyond the bare legal title that we hold, should not be considered property of our bankruptcy estate in the event of a bankruptcy or insolvency. Due to the novelty of stablecoins, however, courts have not yet considered the treatment of underlying reserve assets in the context of a bankruptcy or insolvency of a stablecoin issuer and have only issued a limited number of rulings related to digital assets in the context of a bankruptcy or insolvency. Should a court conclude—consistent with our position—that the underlying reserve assets are the property of stablecoin holders, and not the bankruptcy estate, stablecoin holders may still experience delays in recovering the underlying assets due to, among other things, bankruptcy administration, ongoing litigation, or application of the automatic stay. At the same time, it is possible that a U.S. court, in the case of assets held in reserve for USDC held by non-EEA holders, or a French court, in the case of (i) EURC and (ii) assets held in reserve for USDC held by EEA holders, could instead determine that the reserve assets backing USDC and EURC, respectively, are property of our bankruptcy estate. If this were to happen, other creditors of Circle may be able to obtain recoveries from the underlying reserve assets and holders of Circle stablecoins could be treated as general unsecured creditors of Circle, which could result in Circle stablecoin holders receiving only partial recoveries rather than the full purported value of their stablecoin holdings.

In addition, following the passage of the GENIUS Act, we are exploring ways to further enhance protections and provide certainty for USDC holders in the unlikely event of insolvency. To that end, on June 30, 2025, we submitted to the OCC an application on behalf of our proposed subsidiary to form Circle National Trust as a national trust bank. In December 2025, we received conditional approval to establish Circle National Trust. Once fully approved, Circle National Trust will operate as a federally regulated trust institution, subject to OCC oversight, and will oversee the management of the USDC reserve according to our reserve management policy. Circle National Trust will hold a first-priority perfected security interest in the USDC reserve as collateral trustee for the benefit of USDC holders, and protect the interests of USDC holders in the event of insolvency. See “Business—Reserve management standard” for information regarding our standards for managing Circle stablecoin reserves.

We continue to monitor legal, regulatory, and other developments in order to take reasonable and appropriate steps to continue the safeguarding of Circle stablecoin reserves.

Key Partnerships

Collaboration with Coinbase

In 2018, we partnered with Coinbase, the leading U.S. digital asset exchange, through the Centre Consortium, a joint venture between Coinbase and us, to support the growth of USDC and promote broader adoption of stablecoins. While Coinbase was not required to distribute USDC, we shared reserve-related income to align incentives and support USDC liquidity and usage.

In August 2023, we entered into an updated Collaboration Agreement (the “Collaboration Agreement”) with Coinbase that aligns both parties around USDC growth while providing us with sole governance of our stablecoin network. Coinbase also received a minority equity stake in us, and we entered into an intellectual property license that permits Coinbase to perpetually use certain of our stablecoin trademarks (including USDC and EURC) in connection with marketing and distributing those stablecoins, subject to termination rights in certain circumstances.

Under the Collaboration Agreement, Coinbase supports usage of our stablecoins by its customers across its key products (including on- and off-ramps), and we make payments to Coinbase tied principally to net reserve income from USDC. Payments to Coinbase are calculated from a daily payment base equal to net reserve income (after certain third-party reserve management fees and expenses), from which we retain an issuer portion, we and Coinbase receive allocations based on the amount of the stablecoin held on each party’s platform, and Coinbase receives half of the remaining amount of income generated from stablecoins circulated in the broader ecosystem, after deducting amounts paid to any approved third-party ecosystem participants pursuant to our Stablecoin Ecosystem Agreement with Coinbase (the “Stablecoin Ecosystem Agreement”). In our Consolidated Financial Statements, the payments made to Coinbase under the Collaboration Agreement are recorded as distribution costs with respect to the applicable stablecoin.

The Collaboration Agreement has an initial three-year term. Prior to the lapse of the initial term, we and Coinbase will discuss in good faith whether any modifications to the Collaboration Agreement are warranted. If such modifications are not agreed upon, the Collaboration Agreement will automatically renew for additional three-year terms unless we or Coinbase fail to meet ongoing obligations under the Collaboration Agreement. Additionally, Coinbase has a termination right if we fail to perform on our obligations under the Collaboration Agreement, and we have the right to reduce certain monthly payments if we and Coinbase are unable to agree on renewal terms and Coinbase has failed (after a cure period) to provide specified USDC support outlined in the Collaboration Agreement.

The Collaboration Agreement also addresses situations where continued payments or use of certain trademarks could be restricted by law or regulation, including provisions that could result in changes to our trademark ownership and licensing arrangements for the affected stablecoin, in each case, as outlined in the agreement. See “Risk Factors—Risks related to intellectual property—Our Collaboration Agreement with Coinbase could cause us to lose ownership or use of our trademarks upon the occurrence of certain events.” for more information regarding these provisions.

We believe that our strong alliance with Coinbase will enable us to continue to grow USDC and our stablecoin network and that the payment structure incentivizes Coinbase to grow the usage of USDC and increase USDC liquidity.

Agreements with Binance

In November 2024, we entered into an agreement (the “November Binance Agreement”) with Binance under which Binance agreed to (i) conduct marketing activities to promote USDC as the first approved participant under the Stablecoin Ecosystem Agreement and (ii) maintain a portion of its treasury in USDC. In connection with this agreement, we paid Binance a $60.3 million one-time upfront fee and agreed to pay monthly incentive fees based on USDC balances held on Binance’s platform and in its treasury (subject to minimum balance requirements), as applicable. The treasury arrangement has a two-year term.

In August 2025, we entered into an expanded agreement with Binance (the “August Binance Agreement”) relating to promotion of USDC held through our Modular Smart Contract Wallet infrastructure services, under which we agreed to pay monthly incentive fees based on USDC balances held through those services. The August Binance Agreement has a four-year term, but we and Binance may unilaterally terminate upon the occurrence of certain specified events. Upon completion of the August Binance Agreement, if we and Binance cannot reach an agreement to extend the term, there is a one-year tail during which payments and promotional obligations continue. The August Binance Agreement supersedes the non-treasury portion of the November Binance Agreement and is outside of the provisions of the Stablecoin Ecosystem Agreement.

Partnership with BlackRock

In April 2022, we entered into a memorandum of understanding with BlackRock (the “MOU”) pursuant to which we and BlackRock agreed to explore areas of collaboration related to stablecoins, including potential capital markets applications for USDC during the MOU’s three-year term. In addition, we appointed BlackRock as the exclusive manager of USDC reserves, subject to our ability to hold up to 20% of USDC cash reserves in bank deposits, and we granted BlackRock certain customary rights, including a right of first refusal for similar reserve-management arrangements for other stablecoins and notice rights for certain material transactions. The MOU also contemplated BlackRock’s plan to launch an SEC-registered money market fund specific to us and to which we would subscribe, which fund would invest pursuant to the requirements of Rule 2a-7 under the 1940 Act. Pursuant to this plan, BlackRock launched the Circle Reserve Fund in 2023, but the Circle Reserve Fund is not governed by the terms of the MOU and is therefore not impacted by it. See “Management’s discussion and analysis of financial condition and results of operations—Liquidity and capital resources—Composition of USDC reserves” for additional information regarding the Circle Reserve Fund.

Prior to the expiration of the MOU, we entered into a new memorandum of understanding with BlackRock in March 2025 (as amended and restated, the “New MOU”), which substantially replaces the MOU. Under the terms of the New MOU, we agreed to treat BlackRock as our preferred partner for managing stablecoin reserves and agreed to prioritize, where possible, holding our reserves for the issuance of Circle stablecoins and other products with BlackRock. In particular, we committed to maintaining at least 90% of our U.S.-managed fiat reserves for USDC (excluding bank deposits) with BlackRock managed products, unless legal, regulatory, or operational requirements mandate otherwise. Furthermore, BlackRock agreed to prioritize and prefer USDC and all Circle stablecoins for all U.S. dollar payment stablecoin-related use cases and committed not to develop and launch a competitive payment stablecoin, provided that we continue to fulfill our payment obligations for reserve management. The New MOU remains in effect for a four-year term.

Competitive Landscape

We operate in a rapidly evolving and highly competitive industry. Although our competitive landscape can evolve given the category-defining nature of our platform, our main competition today primarily consists of private issuers of other stablecoins as well as technology startups providing tools and services to blockchain developers, including digital wallets. We are also facing increasing competition from financial services companies and newly emerging yield-bearing digital assets, including TMMFs, and blockchain network providers that seek to become the preferred rails for stablecoin issuance and settlement.

Within the competitive landscape for stablecoins, we compete primarily with two key competitor categories:

• Offshore, unregulated stablecoin issuers, like our primary competitor Tether, that operate without supervision or compliance with the requirements of being a federal- or state-licensed provider of money services; and

• Other primarily U.S.-based regulated digital asset industry participants who are issuing U.S. dollar-based stablecoins.

In addition to the competitive landscape for stablecoins, competition occurs across multiple additional layers of the digital asset and payments ecosystem, including from payment services and networks; other issuers of tokenized products (including asset-backed, algorithmic, and yield-bearing digital assets); blockchain network providers and related infrastructure providers (including those that compete to provide the base-layer settlement environment for stablecoins and tokenized assets); interoperability infrastructure providers (including cross-chain and orchestration services); digital asset custody and safekeeping providers; banks and other financial institutions; wallet providers and application platforms; providers of wallet and developer tooling that abstract away blockchain complexity and shape distribution and user experience; and national governments and central banks. Traditional financial institutions and large payment companies may also develop proprietary solutions or enter the digital asset and infrastructure market directly, and the establishment of clearer regulatory frameworks for stablecoins may further encourage new entrants, including banks with established customer bases and financial infrastructure.

While regulatory and operational requirements may create barriers to entry in certain jurisdictions, we expect competition to continue to intensify as stablecoins and blockchain-based financial infrastructure are increasingly adopted and as market participants seek to capture associated growth opportunities.

We believe we compete favorably across key competitive factors and that we have developed a platform business that is difficult to replicate. However, some of our current and potential competitors have longer operating histories, particularly with respect to digital financial services products, significantly greater financial, technical, marketing, and other resources, and larger customer bases than we do. For a comprehensive description of risks related to competition, see Item 1A “Risk Factors”.

Culture and Workforce

Our mission is to raise global economic prosperity through the frictionless exchange of value. This mission is deeply resonant with Circle employees.

Our values guide both what we deliver and, importantly, how we deliver it. We are:

• High integrity. We seek open and honest communication and hold ourselves to very high moral and ethical standards. Our customers and partners implicitly experience us as high integrity, and our customer-centric choices demonstrate this to them again and again.

• Future Forward. We embrace a transformative vision for the future, and this future forward energy is core to how we operate. Adaptive, agile and constantly looking around corners, we thrive on complexity and uncertainty, and constantly drive change through technology and its transformative potential. We question old practices and processes, always knowing that we can improve ourselves for the betterment of our customers and fulfilling our founding vision.

• Multi-stakeholder. We organize, incentivize, and measure ourselves against meeting the needs of all of our stakeholders—our customers, our shareholders, our employees and families, our local communities, and our world.

• Mindful. We seek to be present and aware, to be respectful, active listeners (with each other and with our customers alike), and to pay attention to detail. We do not rush to judgment, and when we are swept up by strong emotions we patiently observe and acknowledge them before reacting. Our mindfulness leads to better understanding, and more respectful, careful, and deliberate choices.

• Driven by excellence. We are driven by our mission and our passion for customer success. Being driven also means that we relentlessly pursue excellence, that we do not tolerate mediocrity, that we reward based on merit, and that we work intensely to achieve our goals. We are a team that seeks to bring everyone along in our collective achievement.

Our flexible approach to where employees work helps us to recruit and retain the brightest, most dynamic talent worldwide. We take pride in fostering a culture that integrates experts from diverse experiences and skillsets. We believe we have assembled a talented group of employees who are passionate about solving significant challenges in our markets. As of December 31, 2025, we had approximately 1,100 employees.

Intellectual Property

The protection of our technology and intellectual property is an important aspect of our business. We rely upon a combination of trademark, patent, trade secret, and copyright laws in the United States and similar laws in other countries, as well as confidentiality procedures, contractual commitments, and other legal rights to establish, maintain, and protect our intellectual property and proprietary rights. We have an active program of establishing, maintaining, and protecting our intellectual property and proprietary rights, including our proprietary technology, through the filing of patents, registration of trademarks, and use of contractual measures and other intellectual property rights.

As of December 31, 2025, we had 27 issued patents in the United States and had filed 56 provisional patent applications in the United States, as well as 25 patent applications in foreign jurisdiction with respect to our technology. We held 393 registered trademarks in foreign jurisdictions. We also held 25 pending trademark applications in the United States, as well as 174 pending trademark applications in foreign jurisdictions. We intend to file additional trademark applications with respect to our brands.

We generally enter into agreements with our employees, consultants, contractors, and other third parties that include confidentiality and nondisclosure provisions in order to limit access to, and disclosure and use of, our confidential information, trade secrets, know-how, and proprietary technology. Those agreements also often include invention or work product assignment provisions to establish, maintain, and protect our brand and other intellectual property rights. We may also agree to license our intellectual property to third parties as part of various agreements. Intellectual property laws, procedures, and restrictions provide only limited protection and any of our intellectual property rights may be challenged, invalidated, circumvented, infringed, or misappropriated. Further, intellectual property protection may not be available to us in every country in which our products are available and the laws of certain countries do not protect proprietary rights to the same extent as the laws of the United States, and, therefore, in certain jurisdictions, we may be unable to protect our intellectual property. There can be no assurance that our intellectual property rights will be sufficient to protect against others offering products or technologies that are substantially similar to ours and that compete with our business. For additional information, see Item 1A “Risk Factors—Risks related to intellectual property.”

Available Information

Our website is located at www.circle.com, and our investor relations website is located at www.investor.circle.com. Access to our Annual Reports on Form 10-K, Quarterly Reports on Form 10-Q, Current Reports on Form 8-K, and our Proxy Statements, and any amendments to these reports, is available on our investor relations website, free of charge, after we file or furnish them with the SEC and they are available on the SEC's website at www.sec.gov. We webcast via our investor relations page our earnings calls and certain events we participate in or host with members of the investment community. Our investor relations website also provides notifications of news or announcements regarding our financial performance and other items that may be material or of interest to our investors, including SEC filings, investor events, press and earnings releases, and blogs. In addition to filings with the SEC and our investor relations page, we use our blog located at www.circle.com/blog, press releases located at www.circle.com/pressroom, our X feed located at x.com/circle, and our Linkedin page located at www.linkedin.com/company/circle-internet-financial, to communicate information about earnings results and updates, which may be of interest or material to our investors. Further, corporate governance information, including our certificate of incorporation, bylaws, corporate governance guidelines, board committee charters, and code of conduct, is also available on our investor relations website under the heading “Governance.” The information contained on, or that may be accessed through our websites, is not incorporated by reference into this Annual Report on Form 10-K or in any other report or document we file with the SEC, and any references to our websites are intended to be inactive textual references only.

Item 1A. Risk Factors

Investing in our Class A common stock involves a high degree of risk. You should carefully consider the risks and uncertainties described below together with all of the other information contained in this Form 10-K, including our audited financial statements and the notes thereto, before deciding to invest in our Class A common stock. The risks and uncertainties described below are not the only ones we face. Additional risks and uncertainties not presently known to us or that we currently believe to be immaterial may also adversely affect our business. If any of the following risks actually occurs, our business, results of operations, financial condition, and prospects would likely suffer. In such case, the trading price of our Class A common stock could decline, and you may lose all or part of your investment.

Summary Risk Factors

Our business and Class A common stock are subject to many risks, as more fully described in this “Risk Factors” section. These risks include, among others, risks that may prevent us from achieving our business objectives or may adversely affect our business, financial condition, results of operations, cash flows, and prospects. These risks are discussed more fully below and include, but are not limited to:

•We face intense and increasing competition;

•Stablecoins may face periods of uncertainty, loss of trust, or systemic shocks resulting in the potential for rapid redemption requests. Extreme scenarios, such as market shocks that affect the value of USDC reserves or simultaneous requests to redeem all or substantially all USDC in circulation, or concerns related to Circle stablecoin reserves, may lead to redemption delays and USDC reserves being insufficient to meet all redemption requests;

•As a relatively new innovation, digital assets and the blockchains that support them are particularly susceptible to operational challenges and risks, including due to surges in demand;

•The acceptance of Circle stablecoins could be negatively impacted by the disruptions in secondary marketplaces that facilitate the purchase and sale of Circle stablecoins;

•Any negative publicity regarding digital assets or the broader digital asset industry may have an outsized negative effect on consumer confidence;

•The GENIUS Act will change the payment stablecoin ecosystem and may affect our business in ways that cannot yet be known;

•The GENIUS Act amends the U.S. federal securities laws to explicitly exclude from the definition of “security” payment stablecoins issued by PPSIs, which will include USDC. However, until those amendments are effective, we will continue to rely on our conclusion that USDC is not a security under the U.S. federal securities laws;

•We hold a substantial amount of USDC reserves in the Circle Reserve Fund and thus are subject to risks associated with the issuer, the manager, and the custodian of the Circle Reserve Fund;

•Any significant disruption in our or our third-party service providers’ or partners’ technology could result in a loss of customers or funds and adversely impact our business, results of operations, financial condition, and prospects;

•Our customers’ funds and digital assets may fail to be adequately safeguarded by us or the third-party service providers upon whom we rely;

•Our inability to maintain existing relationships with financial institutions and similar firms or to enter into new such relationships could impact our ability to offer services to customers;

•We are subject to credit risks in respect of counterparties, including banks and other financial institutions;

•If we are unable to maintain existing distribution and partnership arrangements or enter into additional distribution or partnership arrangements on less favorable financial terms, USDC and EURC in circulation and Circle’s financial results may be adversely affected;

•Our products and services may be exploited by our customers, employees, service providers, and other third parties to facilitate illegal activity such as fraud, money laundering, terrorist financing, gambling, tax evasion, and scams;

•Our compliance and risk management methods might not be effective;

•Fluctuations in interest rates could impact our results of operations;

•We are subject to an extensive and highly evolving regulatory landscape;

•The regulatory environment to which we are subject gives rise to various licensing requirements, significant compliance costs, and other restrictions, and noncompliance could result in a range of penalties, including fines, compliance costs, operational restrictions, reputational damage, and loss of licenses;

•We are subject to laws, regulations, and executive orders regarding economic and trade sanctions, anti-bribery, AML, and counter-terrorism financing that could impair our ability to compete in international markets or subject us to criminal or civil liability if we violate them. As we continue to expand and localize our international activities, our obligations to comply with the laws, rules, regulations, and policies of a variety of jurisdictions will increase and we may be subject to investigations and enforcement actions by U.S. and non-U.S. regulators and governmental authorities; and

•Insiders continue to have substantial control over us and could limit your ability to influence the outcome of key transactions, including a change of control.

Risks related to our business and industry

We face intense and increasing competition.

We operate in a rapidly changing and highly competitive industry, and our results of operations and future prospects depend in part on the continued growth of the Circle platform, our ability to monetize the Circle platform, and our ability to innovate and create successful new products and services and improve existing products and services.

We expect our competition to continue to increase. We face competition from both established enterprises and early-stage companies that are attempting to capitalize on the same, or similar, opportunities as we are. Some of our current and potential competitors have longer operating histories, particularly with respect to digital financial services products, significantly greater financial, technical, marketing, and other resources, and larger customer bases than we do. This may allow them to offer more competitive pricing or other terms or features, a broader range of digital financial products, or a more specialized set of specific products or services, as well as respond more quickly than we can to new or emerging technologies and changes in end-user and customer preferences. Additionally, when new competitors seek to enter our markets, or when existing market participants seek to increase their market share or revenues, they may offer terms, including fee structures, that are more favorable than ours, which could result in a decrease of our market share or revenues or lead us to adopt less profitable business practices, or otherwise exert downward pressure on our results of operations. For example, actions and policies of those who engage with our products and services, including our distributors, over which we do not control or oversee, could negatively impact our results of operations. In any case, with increased competition, we may be required to incur additional costs or expenses relative to our revenue to maintain or grow the Circle platform and the market acceptance of our products and services.

Our current or future competitors may develop products or services that are similar to our products and services or that achieve greater market acceptance than our products and services, which could attract end-users and customers away from our products and services. For example, we are seeing a rapidly evolving market structure in digital asset trading markets, and certain major trading firms are moving towards TMMFs as a form of collateral. Particularly in the current high interest rate environment, the option to invest in TMMFs or other yield-bearing digital assets has become increasingly attractive relative to holding non-yield bearing stablecoins, especially for those planning to hold these assets for an extended period of time. Therefore, as TMMFs become more readily accessible and widely integrated on blockchains as a form of collateral in margin trading, we expect to continue to see a shift toward the use of TMMFs or other yield-bearing digital assets, which could adversely affect the competitiveness and usage of USDC and EURC in this type of use case.

Our entry into new markets may also impact our marketing strategy, and we may not be able to anticipate how our customers, stockholders, and the market will perceive and respond to any such shifts. The pursuit of new product offerings may also divert management’s attention and redirect the flow of resources away from USDC and EURC.

Additionally, offshore competitors that purport to be outside of the reach of the GENIUS Act may have a competitive advantage due to more permissive regulatory and tax structures. Some of these competitors appear to not be regulated by any competent authority and to pay taxes that are significantly lower than what Circle pays. Further, the introduction of a government-issued digital currency could eliminate or reduce the need or demand for private-sector issued stablecoins, or significantly limit their utility. When new competitors seek to enter our markets, or when existing market participants seek to increase their market share, these competitors sometimes undercut, or otherwise exert pressure on, the pricing terms prevalent in that market, which could adversely affect our market share and/or ability to capitalize on new market opportunities.

We currently compete at multiple levels with a variety of competitors, including:

•payment services;

•fiat-backed, asset-backed, digital asset-collateralized, algorithmic, non-backed and yield-bearing tokens;

•blockchain infrastructure services;

•digital asset safekeeping services;

•banks and nonbank financial institutions; and

•digital wallet providers platforms.

In particular, we compete with and rely on traditional banks for many of the services we offer. We are subject to regulation by a variety of state and federal regulators across our products and services, and we rely on banks to provide banking services to our customers. This regulation by multiple federal, state, and local authorities increases our compliance costs, as we navigate multiple regimes with different examination schedules and processes and varying disclosure requirements. In addition, while the passage of the GENIUS Act has established a clear legal and regulatory framework for stablecoins in the United States, it may attract new market participants that compete with Circle. In particular, banks and other traditional financial institutions with well-established customer bases and financial infrastructures may decide to enter the stablecoin industry, and/or to offer tokenized deposits, which could intensify competition and hinder our growth opportunities.

We believe that our ability to compete depends upon many factors, both within and beyond our control, including the following:

•the size, diversity, and activity levels of our end-user and customer base;

•the timing and market acceptance of products and services, including developments and enhancements to those products and services offered by us and our competitors;

•trust, perception, and interest in the digital asset industry and in our products and services;

•customer service and support efforts;

•selling and marketing efforts;

•the ease of use, performance, price, and reliability of solutions developed either by us or our competitors;

•changes in economic conditions and government regulation and policies;

•our ability to successfully execute on our business plans;

•our ability to successfully integrate new products and services with our existing ones;

•our ability to continue to enhance our technical infrastructure and technology;

•our ability to enter new markets;

•our ability to maintain and grow our partnerships with other market participants;

•general digital payments, capital markets, blockchain, and stablecoin market conditions; and

•our brand strength relative to that of our competitors.

If we are unable to successfully compete in our industry, our business, results of operations, financial condition, and prospects could suffer materially.

Stablecoins may face periods of uncertainty, loss of trust, or systemic shocks resulting in the potential for rapid redemption requests. Extreme scenarios, such as market shocks that affect the value of USDC reserves or simultaneous requests to redeem all or substantially all USDC in circulation, or concerns related to Circle stablecoin reserves, may lead to redemption delays and USDC reserves being insufficient to meet all redemption requests.

Privately issued stablecoins may be subject to the risk of significant and concentrated redemption requests, even when they are fully reserved with high quality liquid assets such as cash and short-dated U.S. government obligations. If we experience significant and concentrated redemption requests with respect to one or more Circle stablecoins, we may need to liquidate a significant portion of Circle stablecoin reserve assets to meet such requests. In extreme cases, the market for the short-dated U.S. government obligations held by the Circle Reserve Fund might not be sufficiently liquid for BlackRock to liquidate them in a way that allows us to meet redemption demands in a timely manner, which could potentially lead to redemption delays. In the most extreme cases, such as a request to immediately redeem all or substantially all of the USDC in circulation, the market for short-dated U.S. government obligations could experience price instability and the USDC reserve may not be sufficient to cover all such redemption requests. When reserve assets and proceeds from reserve assets are not sufficient to cover all redemption requests, we would be required under the laws governing our licenses and registrations as well as under the Circle Mint user agreement (which provides for the redemption of Circle stablecoins on a one-to-one basis for Circle Mint customers) to use our own capital to make up any shortfall. However, our reserve and other policies cannot deter, prevent, or fully protect against significant redemption demand or the ability for the Circle Reserve Fund to meet our redemption requests and banks to meet our withdrawal requests for demand deposits. Currently, all EURC reserve assets are held only in cash.

Market participants have increasingly shown concern about the sufficiency and liquidity of reserves for dollar-denominated stablecoins, including due to issues in the traditional financial markets. For example, in March 2023, we announced that we had initiated transfers of more than $3 billion of deposits from Silicon Valley Bank (“SVB”) to other banks, but those transfers failed to settle before the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (the “FDIC”) placed the bank into receivership. Although all of these funds were ultimately made available and transferred to new banks, concerns related to Circle’s access to these funds caused USDC to experience a temporary price dislocation on certain secondary trading markets during the period when banks were closed and until the resulting backlog of redemption requests had been cleared, and the amount of USDC in circulation decreased thereafter.

In addition, given the foundational role that stablecoins play in global digital asset markets, stablecoin growth has been tied closely to growth in digital asset markets. As a result, systemic risks that manifest themselves in the digital asset markets may lead to higher-than-normal redemption requests on Circle stablecoins, which could lead to significant and concentrated redemption requests with respect to one or more Circle stablecoins.

Market events have brought significantly more attention to some of the risks with digital assets, and we believe have contributed, in part, to outflows from USDC at such times. We believe that events in the traditional financial markets and digital asset markets have underscored the importance of robust transparency, audits, and having regulated stablecoins as building blocks for trust and the functioning of a well-regulated, orderly market for digital assets.

We are unable to predict the timing or severity of any significant or concentrated redemption requests on Circle stablecoins. For example, the collapse of one digital asset or company, including those in the traditional finance sector, such as banks, may result in contagion effects for Circle or the broader digital asset market.

As a relatively new innovation, digital assets and the blockchains that support them are particularly susceptible to operational challenges and risks, including due to surges in demand.

The relative novelty of digital assets may pose operational challenges and risks. In particular, some blockchains that support digital assets have limited operating histories, have not been validated in production, have vulnerabilities that could be abused by malicious users, and are still in the process of developing and making significant decisions that will affect their respective underlying blockchains. Those features could lead to novel operational risks related to the settlement and validation of transactions, which could result in fraudulent misuse of such blockchains involving Circle’s digital assets or otherwise adversely affect the digital assets whose protocols are built on top of such blockchains. Failures in one or more public blockchains could result in sustained periods where end-users cannot access or transfer their Circle Digital Assets, which could result in Circle Digital Assets losing their reputation as a safe and reliable payment technology. Furthermore, we have in the past experienced and may in the future encounter periods of extreme and persistent minting activities, which may result in operational delays in accepting fiat currencies, including due to capacity constraints or otherwise, at the banking institutions where our reserves are currently held. Such delays in processing users’ minting requests could negatively impact our ability to attract market entrants and customers and may cause demand to shift toward our competitors.

Moreover, the governance of many decentralized blockchain networks is by voluntary consensus and open competition, and many developers are not directly compensated for their contributions. As a result, there may be a lack of consensus or clarity on the governance of any particular blockchain network, a lack of incentives for developers to maintain or develop the network, and other unforeseen issues, any of which could result in unexpected or undesirable errors, bugs, or changes, or otherwise stymie such network’s utility and ability to respond to challenges and grow.

The acceptance of Circle stablecoins could be negatively impacted by the disruptions in secondary marketplaces that facilitate the purchase and sale of Circle stablecoins.

The various markets for stablecoins have varying degrees of liquidity. There is no assurance that there will continue to be an active and liquid secondary market for any market participant to buy or sell Circle stablecoins. We provide Circle Mint customers the ability to mint and redeem USDC and EURC directly from us on a one-for-one basis for the U.S. dollar and the euro, respectively, as well as end-users that are not Circle Mint customers (subject to certain eligibility requirements) the ability to redeem USDC and EURC directly from Circle Internet Financial Europe SAS on a one-for-one basis for the U.S. dollar and the euro, respectively. All end-users can purchase, sell, or exchange Circle stablecoins in the secondary markets. However, significant disruptions at secondary marketplaces caused by technical, operational, security, legal, or regulatory issues could cause non-Circle Mint customers to have limited access to markets to obtain Circle stablecoins, cause non-Circle Mint customers to have limited access to markets to exchange their Circle stablecoins for fiat currency or other digital assets, or cause temporary market pricing dislocations, which could have a material adverse effect on the acceptance and use of Circle stablecoins.

Negative developments regarding, including a run on, USDT could adversely affect our business, results of operations, financial condition, and prospects.

USDT is currently the largest stablecoin. As a result, negative developments regarding, or the actual or perceived instability of, USDT could cause a loss of trust in other stablecoins, including Circle stablecoins, adversely affect the stablecoin industry and the digital assets ecosystem as a whole, and result in dramatic market volatility for stablecoins specifically and digital assets generally. A temporary price dislocation in the secondary markets or an outright run on USDT could lead to sustained redemption demand for, a run on, or a similar price dislocation of Circle stablecoins in the secondary markets. Conversely, significant outflows from USDT could also result in significant inflows into USDC, which could outpace our ability to mint sufficient USDC to meet such demand. Although we have never experienced any inability to accommodate customer minting or redemption requests when other stablecoins experienced such price dislocation, it is possible that the volatility of inflows and outflows and the demand for minting or redemptions could be so strong that we may encounter operational difficulties in meeting such demand.

Any negative publicity regarding digital assets or the broader digital asset industry may have an outsized negative effect on consumer confidence.

As is the case with other novel technology, compared to more established and well-known industries, any negative publicity regarding blockchain technology and digital assets companies could have an outsized negative effect on confidence in blockchain technology in general and Circle in particular. For example, since the inception of blockchain technology, there have been incidents of smart contract developers acting maliciously and misappropriating funds, and numerous digital asset businesses and platforms have been sued, investigated, or shut down due to fraud, illegal activities, the sale or issuance of unregistered securities, manipulative practices, business failure, and cyberattacks or security breaches. In addition, the energy usage and environmental impact of certain blockchains have attracted considerable attention, which could potentially create a negative consumer sentiment and perception of digital assets and delay a wider acceptance and use of Circle Digital Assets, whether or not Circle Digital Assets are available on those blockchains.

The GENIUS Act will change the payment stablecoin ecosystem and may affect our business in ways that cannot yet be known.

On July 18, 2025, President Trump signed into law the GENIUS Act. The GENIUS Act creates a new federal regulatory regime for payment stablecoins, including Circle stablecoins, and issuers of payment stablecoins, including Circle. The GENIUS Act leaves much of its implementation to rulemaking by U.S. regulators. While the GENIUS Act has been signed into law, it will not become effective until the earlier of January 18, 2027 or 120 days after the primary federal payment stablecoin regulators issue any final regulations implementing the GENIUS Act (the “GENIUS Act Effective Date”).

Among many other provisions, the GENIUS Act defines “payment stablecoin”; prohibits issuance of payment stablecoins in the United States by anyone other than a permitted payment stablecoin issuer (“PPSI”); outlines a comprehensive regulatory regime for PPSIs (as described further below); prohibits PPSIs and foreign payment stablecoin issuers from paying the holder of any payment stablecoin any form of interest or yield (whether in cash, tokens, or other consideration) solely in connection with the holding, use, or retention of such payment stablecoin; excludes payment stablecoins issued by a PPSI from the definition of “security” under the U.S. federal securities laws; limits the reserve assets permissible for payment stablecoins and clarifies the treatment of payment stablecoins issued by non-U.S. issuers. The impact of these legal and regulatory changes to the payment stablecoin ecosystem in general, and Circle and Circle stablecoins in particular, will depend in large part on how the GENIUS Act is implemented through rulemaking by U.S. regulators.

Circle intends to meet the requirements to become a PPSI for its issuance of USDC. As a PPSI, Circle will be subject to a regulatory regime that includes, among other provisions, financial crimes requirements; capital, liquidity and risk management requirements; activities limits; privacy provisions; consumer protection requirements; and provisions related to stablecoin holder priority in insolvency. While we already adhere to and/or have programs addressing many of these requirements consistent with our “regulation-first” philosophy and in order to comply with the requirements of various regulatory regimes to which we are already subject, the specifics of the rules implementing the GENIUS Act may require changes or updates to our compliance programs and impose additional costs on us. In addition, the GENIUS Act and its implementing regulations may limit our flexibility in certain ways, such as limiting the assets that are permitted to be held in a payment stablecoin reserve, which could limit our discretion on the future composition of our stablecoin reserves.

The GENIUS Act amends the U.S. federal securities laws to explicitly exclude from the definition of “security” payment stablecoins issued by PPSIs, which will include USDC. However, until those amendments are effective, we will continue to rely on our conclusion that USDC is not a security under the U.S. federal securities laws.

The GENIUS Act amends the U.S. federal securities laws to exclude from the definition of “security” payment stablecoins issued by PPSIs. While the GENIUS Act has been signed into law, these amendments to the U.S. federal securities laws will not occur until the GENIUS Act Effective Date. Until that time for payment stablecoins issued by PPSIs, and indefinitely for payment stablecoins that are not issued by PPSIs, the key statutory provisions relevant to payment stablecoins remain unchanged.

As a result, until such date for USDC, and for the foreseeable future for EURC (which will not be issued by a PPSI), we will continue to rely on our conclusion that Circle stablecoins are not securities under current U.S. federal securities laws. We have continually evaluated Circle stablecoins against the various definitions of “security” under U.S. federal securities laws and federal court decisions interpreting the elements of these definitions, such as the U.S. Supreme Court’s decisions in the Howey and Reves cases and have concluded that Circle stablecoins are not securities under those tests. We believe our conclusion has been further strengthened by a statement on April 4, 2025 by the SEC’s Division of Corporation Finance on the status of “Covered Stablecoins” under the U.S. federal securities laws. We acknowledge, however, that a court, state regulators, state attorneys general, or other regulatory authorities could take a different view.

If one or more Circle stablecoins were classified as “securities,” or if a Circle stablecoin were offered or sold in securities transactions, we and other market participants engaging with Circle stablecoins would be subject to significant additional regulation, much of which is incompatible with our and their current practices.

We intend to offer and support certain digital assets classified as “securities” under U.S. securities laws, and thus must comply with applicable securities laws.

We intend to offer and support certain digital assets classified as “securities” under U.S. securities laws. For example, we issue USYC, a TMMF. We acknowledge that TMMFs are “securities” under U.S. securities laws. As such, we will only offer USYC and any other such products in reliance upon an exemption to the registration requirements of the Securities Act or pursuant to an effective registration statement and will not offer such products in the United States or to U.S. persons in a manner that would constitute a public offering absent registration or an exemption. To the extent that we issue additional digital assets, we must analyze whether such digital assets could be deemed securities under U.S. federal and other relevant securities laws. If we determine that such digital assets constitute “securities” under U.S. securities laws or may be sold in a securities transaction, we must ensure that the offer and sale of such digital assets are made in compliance with applicable securities laws. We have policies and procedures with respect to the offer and sale of digital asset securities that are designed to ensure compliance with applicable securities laws. However, there can be no assurance that such policies and procedures will guarantee that our activities with respect to digital asset securities are conducted in compliance with applicable securities laws. If we violate the securities laws with respect to such digital asset securities, including because our determination regarding the securities status is later alleged or held to be incorrect, the amount of fines, penalties, and other damages that we could incur as a result could have a material adverse effect on our business, results of operations, financial condition, and prospects.

We hold a substantial amount of USDC reserves in the Circle Reserve Fund and thus are subject to risks associated with the issuer, the manager, and the custodian of the Circle Reserve Fund.

As of December 31, 2025, we held approximately 88% of USDC reserves in the Circle Reserve Fund, a government money market fund pursuant to Rule 2a-7 under the 1940 Act managed by BlackRock, one of the world’s largest asset managers, and available only to Circle. The assets within the Circle Reserve Fund are held in the custody of BNY, one of the largest asset custodians in the world. See “Management’s discussion and analysis of financial condition and results of operations—Liquidity and capital resources—Composition of USDC reserves” for additional information regarding the Circle Reserve Fund. The Circle Reserve Fund’s investments and business operations are managed by BlackRock Advisors, LLC, as investment manager, subject to oversight of BlackRock Funds’ board of trustees. If the terms of the Circle Reserve Fund are modified in a way that no longer suits our objectives, or if BlackRock manages the Circle Reserve Fund in a manner inconsistent with our reserve management standard, we may redeem our shares of the Circle Reserve Fund and replace the services provided by BlackRock with other investment managers, which might lead to additional transaction costs; we do not have other recourse (other than under the securities laws if BlackRock manages the Circle Reserve Fund in a manner inconsistent with the fund’s prospectus). If the Circle Reserve Fund is no longer available to us, we must identify other methods to manage a substantial amount of USDC reserves, such as by identifying additional appropriate government money market funds and establishing additional relationships with financial institutions and similar firms, which we may not be able to do in a timely manner. In addition, USDC holders’ trust in USDC and USDC reserves may be, in part, based on their perceptions of the issuer, asset manager, and the custodian of the Circle Reserve Fund. As a result, if either BlackRock or BNY suffers significant negative publicity or damage to its reputation or if we choose to partner with other asset managers or custodians that are not viewed as having equivalent expertise or reputation, trust in USDC could be negatively affected, which could result in an adverse impact on our business, results of operations, financial condition, and prospects.

Future developments regarding the treatment of Circle stablecoins and other stablecoins for U.S. federal income, state, and foreign tax purposes could adversely impact our business.

Due to the new and evolving nature of stablecoins and other digital assets, there is an absence of law and judicial precedent on their treatment for U.S. federal, state, and foreign income tax purposes. We do not know with any certainty when or if additional guidance will be provided. Changes to the tax law could lead to adverse tax consequences in the future.

In 2014, the U.S. Internal Revenue Service (the “IRS”) released a notice (the “IRS Notice”) discussing certain aspects of “convertible virtual currency” (that is, a digital asset that has an equivalent value in fiat currency or that acts as a substitute for fiat currency) for U.S. federal income tax purposes. The IRS stated that a digital asset (i) is “property,” (ii) is not “currency” for purposes of the rules relating to foreign currency gain or loss, and (iii) may be held as a capital asset. In 2019, the IRS released a revenue ruling and a set of “Frequently Asked Questions” (the “Ruling & FAQs”) that provide some additional guidance, including guidance to the effect that, under certain circumstances, hard forks of digital assets are taxable events giving rise to ordinary income and guidance with respect to the determination of the tax basis of digital assets. However, the IRS Notice and the Ruling & FAQs do not address other significant aspects of the U.S. federal income tax treatment of stablecoins. Furthermore, the IRS Notice states that no inference should be drawn with respect to virtual currencies not described therein.

The types of virtual currencies addressed in the IRS Notice and their features are significantly different from Circle stablecoins and stablecoins in general. Whereas the value of the types of virtual currencies addressed in the Notice reflect a variety of factors, such as perceived utility, they are not subject to a requirement by the issuer to redeem them on a one-for-one basis for fiat currency. Although we believe our treatment of digital asset transactions is consistent with existing guidance provided by the IRS, because of the rapidly evolving nature of digital asset innovations and the increasing variety and complexity of digital asset products, it is possible the IRS may disagree with our treatment, which could adversely affect our customers and end-users and the vitality of our business. Similar uncertainties exist in the foreign markets in which we operate, affecting our non-U.S. customer and end-user base. These uncertainties and potential adverse interpretations of tax law could affect our non-U.S. customers and non-U.S. end-users and the vitality of our products and services outside of the United States.

There can be no assurance that the IRS or other foreign tax authority will not alter or clarify its position with respect to digital assets generally and stablecoins specifically in the future. It is also unclear what additional guidance may be issued in the future on the treatment of existing stablecoin and digital asset transactions and future innovations for purposes of U.S. federal income tax or other foreign tax regulations. Any such alteration of existing IRS or foreign tax authority positions or additional guidance regarding digital asset products and transactions could result in adverse tax consequences for both holders and issuers of digital assets and the value of digital assets more generally. Future technological and operational developments that may arise with respect to digital assets may increase the uncertainty with respect to the treatment of digital assets for U.S. federal income and foreign tax purposes. The uncertainty regarding tax treatment of stablecoins and other digital assets transactions impacts our customers and end-users, and could negatively impact our business, both domestically and abroad.

Developing new products and services may require substantial expenditures and such products and services may not gain market adoption, which could adversely affect our business, results of operations, financial condition, and prospects.

Our industry has been characterized by many rapid, significant, and disruptive products and services in recent years. We face intense and increasing competition from both established enterprises and early-stage companies. Our ability to grow our end-user base, capture new revenue streams, and monetize opportunities depends heavily on our ability to innovate and create successful new products and services, both independently and in collaboration with third-party partners. Developing new products and services may require substantial expenditures, divert management’s attention, consume considerable time and resources, and ultimately may not be successful. For example, in 2025 we launched Circle Payments Network,which connects eligible financial institutions to facilitate near-instant, 24/7/365 payment settlement using regulated stablecoins, and Arc, our Layer-1 blockchain project, each of which requires considerable time, financial and personnel resources, and rely on adoption by third parties in order to be successful, and we may not see the return on investment in the timeframe anticipated or at all. New product or service offerings could fail to attract customers and generate revenue (or diversify existing revenue). In addition, if new product or service offerings do not integrate effectively with our existing offerings, we may be unable to realize expected synergies or deliver enhanced utility for the Circle platform. If we fail to introduce new and improved products and services, if such offerings are not favorably received or adopted by the market, or if required expenditures outpace revenue generated by these products, our business, results of operations, financial condition, and prospects could be adversely affected.

Any significant disruption in our or our third-party service providers’ or partners’ technology could result in a loss of customers or funds and adversely impact our business, results of operations, financial condition, and prospects.

Our reputation and ability to attract and retain customers and grow our business depends on our ability to operate our service at high levels of reliability, scalability, and performance, including the ability to process and monitor, on a daily basis, a large number of transactions that occur at high volume and frequencies across multiple systems. The proper functioning of our products and services, the ability of our customers to make and receive payments, and our ability to operate at a high level are dependent on our ability to access the blockchain networks underlying our products, for which access is dependent on our systems’ ability to access the internet. Further, the successful and continued operations of such blockchain networks will depend on a network of computers, miners, or validators, and their continued operations, all of which may be impacted by service interruptions.

Our systems, the systems of our third-party service providers and partners, and certain digital asset and blockchain networks, have experienced from time to time and may experience in the future service interruptions or degradation because of hardware and software defects or malfunctions, distributed denial-of-service and other cyberattacks or security breaches, insider threats, break-ins, sabotage, human error, vandalism, earthquakes, hurricanes, floods, fires, other natural disasters, power losses, disruptions in telecommunications services, fraud, military or political conflicts, terrorist attacks, computer viruses or other malware, or other events. In addition, extraordinary site usage could cause our computer systems to operate at an unacceptably slow speed or even fail. Some of our systems, including systems of companies we have acquired or the systems of our third-party service providers and partners, are not fully redundant, and our or their disaster recovery planning may not be sufficient for all possible outcomes or events.

If any of our systems, or those of our critical third-party service providers, are disrupted for any reason, our products and services may fail, resulting in unanticipated disruptions, slower response times, and delays in our services, including customers’ payments through their digital wallets (each, a “Circle Mint account”). This could lead to failed or unauthorized payments, incomplete or inaccurate accounting, loss of customer information, increased demand on limited customer support resources, customer claims, complaints with regulatory organizations, lawsuits, or enforcement actions. A prolonged interruption in the availability or reduction in the availability, speed, or functionality of our products and services could harm our business. Frequent or persistent interruptions in our services could cause current or potential customers or partners to believe that our systems are unreliable, leading them to switch to our competitors or to avoid or reduce the use of our products and services. Any such developments could permanently harm our reputation and brands and could lead to regulatory scrutiny, significant fines and penalties, and mandatory and costly changes to our business practices. They ultimately could cause us to lose existing licenses or banking relationships that we need to operate or prevent or delay us from obtaining additional licenses that may be required for our business.

Moreover, to the extent that any system failure or similar event results in damages to our customers or their business partners or end-users, these customers or partners could seek significant compensation or contractual penalties from us for their losses. Such claims, even if unsuccessful, would likely be time-consuming and costly for us to address.

In addition, we are continually improving and upgrading our information systems and technologies. Implementation of new systems and technologies is complex, expensive, time-consuming, and may not be successful. If we fail to timely and successfully implement new information systems and technologies or improvements or upgrades to existing information systems and technologies, or if such systems and technologies do not operate as intended, it could have an adverse impact on our business, results of operations, financial condition, and prospects.

Our customers’ funds and digital assets may fail to be adequately safeguarded by us or the third-party service providers upon whom we rely.

Customer assets are not insured or guaranteed by any government or government agency. We have also entered into service arrangements with third parties where we or third-party service providers receive and hold funds for the benefit of our customers. Some of the digital assets held in connection with our discontinued legacy products are maintained in accounts on third parties’ exchanges. Our and our third-party service providers’ abilities to manage and accurately safeguard these funds and digital assets require a high level of internal controls. As our business continues to grow and we expand our product and service offerings, we must continue to strengthen our associated internal controls and ensure that our third-party service providers do the same. Our success and the success of our product offerings require significant public confidence in our and our third-party service providers’ ability to properly manage digital asset balances and handle large and growing transaction volumes and amounts of customer funds. In addition, we are dependent on our third-party service providers’ operations, liquidity, and financial condition for the proper maintenance, use, and safekeeping of these customer assets. Any failure by us or our third-party service providers to maintain the necessary controls or to manage customer digital assets and funds appropriately and in compliance with applicable regulatory requirements could result in reputational harm and significant financial losses, lead customers to discontinue or reduce their use of our and our third-party service providers’ products, and result in significant penalties and fines and additional restrictions, all of which could adversely impact our business, results of operations, financial condition, and prospects.

We deposit, transfer, and hold in custody customer funds and digital assets in multiple jurisdictions. In each instance, we are required to safeguard customers’ assets using security controls that meet our regulatory obligations and also address the specific risks applicable to our hot and cold wallet storage systems as well as our financial management systems related to such custodial functions. We appropriately ledger, properly segregate, and maintain separate accounts for our corporate-held stablecoins and the reserve assets in respect of our customers’ stablecoins. Our security technology is designed to prevent, detect, and mitigate inappropriate access to our systems, by internal or external threats. We believe we have developed and maintained administrative, technical, and physical safeguards designed to comply with applicable legal requirements and industry standards. However, it is nevertheless possible that hackers, employees, or service providers acting contrary to our policies could circumvent these safeguards to improperly access our systems or documents, or the systems or documents of our third-party service providers or agents, and improperly access, obtain, or misuse customer digital assets and funds. The methods used to obtain unauthorized access, disable, or degrade service, or sabotage systems are also constantly changing and evolving, and they may be difficult to anticipate or detect for long periods of time. We have obtained insurance coverage for such impropriety in amounts that we believe are appropriate for our business under our primary financial institution bond insurance (which, subject to certain conditions and exceptions, covers, among other things, theft by employees, unexplainable disappearance of electronic data processing media on our premises, and computer fraud and funds transfer fraud) and under our vault risk insurance (which, subject to certain conditions and exceptions, covers, among other things, dishonest and/or fraudulent acts and omissions of certain employees in finance, engineering, and custody operations roles with respect of private keys and/or authentication credentials). However, our insurance may not cover the extent of loss nor the nature of such loss, in which case we may be liable for the full amount of losses suffered, which could be greater than all of our assets. Our ability to maintain insurance is also subject to the insurance carriers’ ongoing underwriting criteria. Our insurance policies described above generally have one-year terms without automatic renewals. As a result, we must renew such policies annually or enter into new policies, which we may not be able to do on commercially reasonable terms, if at all, particularly as the digital assets insurance market is limited. In addition, any insurance that we maintain may be insufficient to protect us or our customers against all possible losses or source of losses, and such uninsured losses may exceed our remaining assets, which could cause a substantial business disruption, adverse reputational impact, inability to compete with our competitors, and regulatory investigations, inquiries, or actions. Additionally, transactions undertaken through our websites or on our Arc network or other electronic channels may create risks of fraud, hacking, unauthorized access or acquisition, and other deceptive practices. Any security incident resulting in a compromise of customer assets could result in substantial costs to us and require us to notify impacted customers and regulators of a possible or actual incident. Such incidents may also expose us to regulatory enforcement actions (including substantial fines), limit our ability to provide services, subject us to litigation, impose significant financial losses, and adversely impact our business, results of operations, financial condition, and prospects.

In addition, although we hold at least an equivalent amount of fiat currency denominated assets for stablecoins in circulation, there is not complete certainty in a stablecoin holder’s claim to reserve assets in the event of bankruptcy or insolvency.

The loss or destruction of private keys required to access any digital assets held in custody for our own account or for our customers may be irreversible.

Digital assets are generally controllable only by the possessor of the unique private key relating to the digital wallet in which the digital assets are held. While blockchain protocols typically require public addresses to be published when used in a transaction, private keys must be safeguarded and kept private in order to prevent a third party from accessing the digital assets held in such a wallet. To the extent that any of the private keys relating to wallets containing digital assets held for our own account or for our customers is lost, destroyed, or otherwise compromised or unavailable, and no backup of the private key is accessible, we will be unable to access the digital assets held in the related wallet. Further, we cannot provide assurance that our wallet will not be hacked or compromised. Digital assets and blockchain technologies have been, and may in the future be, subject to cyberattacks or security breaches, hacking, or other malicious activities. Any loss of private keys relating to, or hack or other compromise of, digital wallets used to store our customers’ digital assets could adversely affect our customers’ ability to access or sell their digital assets, require us to reimburse our customers for their losses, and subject us to significant financial losses in addition to losing customer trust in us and our products. The total value of digital assets in our possession and control is significantly greater than the total value of insurance coverage that would compensate us in the event of theft or other loss of funds.

Our inability to maintain existing relationships with financial institutions and similar firms or to enter into new such relationships could impact our ability to offer services to customers.

As of December 31, 2025, we held approximately 88% of USDC reserves in the Circle Reserve Fund, which is managed by BlackRock and custodied at BNY, with the remaining portion of USDC reserves held as cash at various banks in accounts that are titled FBO holders of USDC, primarily GSIBs. These banks and their regulators may impose requirements or demand information from us regarding us, our customers, or our operations as a condition to our continued relationship, and such requirements or requests may become increasingly rigorous in the future as our business grows. Complying with such requirements or requests may be costly and time-consuming and may divert management’s attention from other aspects of our business. If we are unable to fulfill such requirements or requests on a timely basis, or at all, we may be unable to maintain our existing banking relationships or establish new ones. If we are unable to maintain existing relationships with such financial institutions, we may not be able to enter into new relationships with other qualified financial institutions in a timely manner, which may materially and adversely affect our ability to access reserves, honor redemptions, and offer other services to our customers.

In addition, in order to offer our payments, payout, and wallet services to customers, we depend on various third-party payment systems and other partners. Specifically, our offering of the payments, payout, and wallet services depends on our ability to offer card transaction processing, ACH transaction processing, and wire transfer processing services to our customers. In order to provide such transaction processing services, we have established relationships with financial institutions whereby such institutions sponsor us into the relevant payment networks (e.g., the card networks and the ACH). Our ability to offer these services depends on our ability to maintain existing sponsorship relationships and to establish new sponsorship relationships. Should our sponsorship partners cease providing such sponsorship, we would be at risk of being unable to provide the payment processing services that are core to our customer offering.

Third parties upon which we rely to process transactions may refuse to process transactions adequately, breach their agreements with us, refuse to renew agreements on commercially reasonable terms, take actions that degrade the functionality of our services, impose additional costs or requirements on us, or give preferential treatment to our competitors. Some third parties that provide services to us may have or gain market power and be able to increase their prices to us without competitive constraint. In addition, there can be no assurance that third parties that provide services directly to us will continue to do so on acceptable terms, or at all, or will not suffer from outages to their systems. If any third parties were to stop providing services to us on acceptable terms, we may be unable to procure alternatives from other third parties in a timely and efficient manner and on acceptable terms, or at all, which may materially and adversely affect our business, results of operations, financial condition, and prospects.

We are subject to credit risks in respect of counterparties, including banks and other financial institutions.

We are and will continue to be subject to the risk of actual or perceived deterioration of the commercial and financial soundness, or perceived soundness, of other financial institutions, especially banks holding reserves of Circle stablecoins. This is particularly the case in relation to receivables regarding settled payment transactions, and with respect to cash and cash equivalents held at financial institutions. We regularly maintain cash balances at banks in excess of the FDIC insurance limit. The failure of such a bank could result in our inability or delays or disruptions in our ability to access reserves and honor redemptions. Further, Circle stablecoin reserves held in omnibus structures at third-party financial institutions are not covered by FDIC insurance above applicable limits and are subject to risk of loss. One institution defaulting, failing a stress test, or requiring bail-in by its shareholders and/or creditors and/or bail-out by a government could lead to significant liquidity problems and losses or defaults by other institutions, as was seen during turmoil in the global banking system in 2023. Even the perceived lack of creditworthiness of, or questions about, a counterparty or major financial institution may lead to market-wide liquidity problems and losses or defaults by financial institutions to which we have an exposure. This risk resulting from the interdependence on financial institutions is sometimes referred to as “systemic risk” and may adversely affect financial intermediaries, such as industry payment systems and banks, with whom we interact on a daily basis. Systemic risk could expose us to risk of loss, litigation, and potential liability and have a material adverse effect on our ability to raise new funding and on our business, results of operations, financial condition, and prospects.

If we are unable to maintain existing distribution and partnership arrangements or enter into additional distribution or partnership arrangements on less favorable financial terms, USDC and EURC in circulation and Circle’s financial results may be adversely affected.

We have entered into, and expect to enter into additional, strategic distribution and partnership arrangements for USDC and EURC. However, there can be no assurance that our distribution partners will distribute and promote USDC and EURC at the levels that we expect or in a manner that aligns with our business objectives. USDC and EURC in circulation may be impacted by our ability to maintain our current distribution arrangements and enter into additional distribution arrangements in the future. If we are unable to maintain our existing distribution partnerships or enter into additional distribution arrangements on favorable terms, USDC and EURC in circulation and Circle’s financial results could be adversely impacted. In addition, in such collaborations, any deterioration in our relationships with our distribution partners, adverse changes in their financial stability, brand, or reputation, or shifts in their strategic priorities in favor of our competitors could negatively impact USDC or EURC in circulation and Circle’s financial results. Additionally, in the event that our distribution partners are entitled to an increasing percentage of our reserve income, our profitability and results of operations could be adversely impacted. Any of the foregoing could have an adverse effect on our business, results of operations, financial condition, and prospects.

Our digital assets are largely distributed by a few key distributors and loss of one of our key distributors may have a significant impact on the amount of Circle Digital Assets in circulation, which could adversely impact Circle’s financial results.

While the internet financial system involves many traditional and emerging counterparties, the market for distribution of stablecoins is concentrated among a few key distributors that have reached significant scale and global reach. Similarly, our digital asset distribution network, while vast, includes a few key partners that are responsible for a greater percentage of the distribution of our digital assets. Should any of these digital asset distributors take action to promote other digital assets in advance of ours or should they stop supporting our digital assets, such distributors may be difficult to replace, or other distributors are unable to fulfil the demands, and such loss could have an adverse impact on the circulation of our digital assets and our financial results. However, our network includes a meaningful number of smaller and emerging partners across geographies and use cases. Many of these partners are already integrated and actively distributing our stablecoins at smaller scale, including through existing distributor partners, and these partners could expand volumes over time through existing distribution channels to help meet market demand if support from any single large distributor were reduced.

Our products and services may be exploited by our customers, employees, service providers, and other third parties to facilitate illegal activity such as fraud, money laundering, terrorist financing, gambling, tax evasion, and scams.

We have been, and may in the future be, subject to liability for illegal transactions conducted by our customers, employees, service providers, and other third parties. Although our service agreements with customers shift liabilities to customers in connection with fraudulent activities, examples of third-party transactions for which we could incur liability include fraudulent payments initiated by our customers, money laundering, gambling, tax evasion, and scams. Examples of fraud include when a party knowingly uses a stolen digital wallet or otherwise illicitly acquires access information to a digital wallet. Criminals are using increasingly sophisticated methods to engage in illegal activities such as counterfeiting, account takeover, and fraud. It is possible that incidents of fraud could increase in the future. The use of our products or services for illegal or improper purposes could subject us to claims, individual and class action lawsuits, and government and regulatory investigations, prosecutions, enforcement actions, inquiries, or requests that could result in liability and reputational harm for us. Further, payment processors have and could require us to terminate services to customers involved in such illegal activities. These payment processors could also charge us a fine in connection with a customer’s entry into their fraud monitoring programs.

In addition, we are subject to the risk that our employees or service providers could commit fraudulent activity against us or our customers. Such misconduct could include engaging in improper or unauthorized transactions or activities, misappropriation of customer funds, misappropriation of information, failing to supervise other employees or service providers, or improperly using confidential information. To help us detect employee (including senior officers) and service provider misconduct, we have an overarching enterprise risk management framework that is designed to provide reasonable assurance that our employees and vendors support and adhere to a strong risk-based culture. This framework includes a third-party management program that focuses on enterprise-wide risks related to service providers in terms of misconduct, compliance, and reputational risks. In addition, our internal audit program provides independent review and control testing specific to our business that work to ensure that risk management, oversight, governance, and internal controls are operating effectively. These programs enable us to identify risks and test associated controls to prevent and detect employee and service provider misconduct. We employ various manual and automated ways to detect potential employee or third-party misconduct. Examples of these programs are a whistleblower policy and security controls that monitor suspicious activity. For our service providers, our risk management framework requires us to perform risk-based due diligence on service providers, such as AML screening. We also require annual AML and security training for all employees to help our employees identify and detect misconduct proactively. Our efforts to detect and monitor such transactions for compliance with law may require significant costs, and may not ultimately detect or deter all such transactions.

Moreover, certain activity that may be legal in one jurisdiction may be illegal in another jurisdiction, and certain activities that are at one time legal may in the future be deemed illegal in the same jurisdiction. As a result, there is significant uncertainty and cost associated with detecting and monitoring transactions for compliance with local laws. In the event that a customer is found responsible for intentionally or inadvertently violating the laws in any jurisdiction, we may be subject to governmental inquiries or enforcement actions, prosecuted, or otherwise held secondarily liable for aiding or facilitating such activities. Changes in law have also increased the penalties for money transmitters, e-money issuers, broker-dealers, and alternative trading systems for certain illegal activities, and government authorities may consider increased or additional penalties from time to time. Owners of intellectual property rights or government authorities may seek to bring legal action against us for involvement in the sale of infringing or allegedly infringing items. Any threatened or resulting claims could result in reputational harm, financial liabilities, loss of transaction volume, or increased costs that could harm our business, results of operations, financial condition, and prospects.

The risk of illegal activity may be heightened for digital assets, which are relatively new and, in many jurisdictions, lightly regulated or largely unregulated. Many types of digital assets have characteristics such as the speed with which transactions can be conducted, the ability to conduct transactions without the involvement of regulated intermediaries, the ability to engage in transactions across multiple jurisdictions, the irreversible nature of certain transactions, and encryption technology that anonymizes transactions, which may make digital assets susceptible to use in illegal activity. Federal, state, and foreign regulatory authorities and law enforcement agencies—such as the Department of Justice, the SEC, the CFTC, the FTC, the IRS, and various state securities and financial regulators—investigate, issue subpoenas, make civil investigative demands, and take legal action against persons and entities alleged to be engaged in fraudulent schemes or other illicit activity involving digital assets.

While we believe that our risk management and compliance framework is reasonably designed to detect significant illicit activities conducted by our potential or existing customers, we cannot ensure that we will be able to detect all illegal activity on our systems. If any of our customers use our products and services to further such illegal activities, our business could be adversely affected.

Our compliance and risk management methods might not be effective.

Our ability to comply with applicable complex and evolving laws, regulations, and rules is largely dependent on the establishment and maintenance of our legal, compliance, audit, and reporting systems, as well as our ability to attract and retain qualified legal, compliance, and other risk management personnel. While we have devoted significant resources to develop policies and procedures to identify, monitor, and manage our risks, and expect to continue to do so in the future, there can be no assurance that our policies and procedures will always be effective or that we will always be successful in monitoring or evaluating the risks to which we are or may be exposed in all market environments or against all types of risks. Our risk management policies and procedures rely on a combination of technical and human controls and supervision that are subject to error and failure. Some of our methods for managing risk are discretionary by nature and are based on internally developed controls, observed historical market behavior, and standard industry practices. These methods may not adequately prevent losses, particularly in the case of extreme market movements, which may be significantly greater than historical fluctuations in the market. Our risk management policies and procedures also may not adequately prevent losses if our testing and quality control practices are not effective in preventing failures. In addition, we may elect to adjust our risk management policies and procedures to allow for an increased risk tolerance, which could expose us to the risk of greater losses.

Regulators periodically review our compliance with our own policies and procedures and with a variety of laws and regulations. We have received in the past, and may from time to time receive additional, examination reports citing violations of rules and regulations and inadequacies in our existing compliance programs. Those reports may require us to enhance certain practices with respect to our compliance program—including due diligence, training, monitoring, reporting, and recordkeeping. We continue to enhance our compliance programs to address such findings, including enhancing our due diligence, monitoring, reporting and recordkeeping processes, and controls. If we fail to comply with these programs or do not adequately remediate certain findings, regulators may take a variety of actions that could impair our ability to conduct our business, including delaying, denying, withdrawing, or conditioning approval of our licenses or certain products and services. In addition, regulators have broad enforcement powers to censure, fine, issue cease-and-desist orders, or otherwise prohibit us from engaging in some of our business activities. In the case of noncompliance or alleged noncompliance, we could be subject to investigations and proceedings that may result in substantial penalties or civil lawsuits, including by customers, for damages which can be significant.

Furthermore, we rely on third parties for some of our KYC and other compliance obligations. If these third parties fail to effectively provide these services, we may be subject to adverse consequences as described above.

Minting and redeeming Circle stablecoins from our platform involves risks, which could result in loss of customer assets, customer disputes, and other liabilities.

To receive a Circle stablecoin, a verified customer must wire transfer the amount of fiat currency corresponding to the equivalent amount of desired applicable Circle stablecoin to a Circle bank account. Once the credit is made to the Circle bank account, tokens are minted to the customer’s Circle Mint account, effectively increasing the applicable Circle stablecoin in circulation. Likewise, customers with a Circle stablecoin in their Circle Mint account can redeem such tokens so that the system cancels the applicable Circle stablecoin tokens and transfers funds in the applicable fiat currency out of reserve and into a customer’s linked bank account, effectively reducing the applicable Circle stablecoin in circulation.

If a customer incorrectly enters bank account credentials or other information when depositing and withdrawing funds, there is a risk that a portion or all of the customer’s assets will be permanently and irretrievably lost with no means of recovery. Alternatively, a customer may transfer Circle stablecoins or other supported assets to an external wallet address that they do not own, control, or hold the private keys to. Such incidents could result in customer disputes, damage to our brand and reputation, legal claims against us, and financial liabilities, any of which could adversely affect our business.

Protection under the Securities Investor Protection Corporation (the “SIPC”) will not be available for USDC or other stablecoins.

Pursuant to the Securities Investor Protection Act of 1970 (the “SIPA”), the SIPC provides certain protections to investors for cash or securities held in their brokerage accounts in the event of insolvency of a broker-dealer or limited other circumstances. Based on SEC guidance and the GENIUS Act, we do not consider USDC to be a “security” under the U.S. securities laws and do not believe that the SIPC would currently consider USDC to be cash or securities for these purposes. Accordingly, the protections afforded under the SIPA would not currently apply to Circle stablecoins. If an end-user holds Circle stablecoins with a broker-dealer, in the event of such brokerage firm’s liquidation, for example, the end-user’s unregistered Circle stablecoins held in the custody of the broker-dealer will be treated as a general claim as opposed to a claim that has priority over other creditors in a liquidation. Holders of Circle stablecoins would thus not be entitled to SIPC coverage for missing assets of a liquidated broker-dealer. Accordingly, the lack of SIPA protections and SIPC coverage could adversely affect our ability to retain and obtain new customers and end-users and expand our Circle stablecoin operations.

Our brands and reputation are integral to our business and competitive position and we may incur additional costs to protect and promote our brands.

Our brands and reputation are key assets and a competitive advantage. Maintaining, protecting, and enhancing our brands depends largely on the success of our marketing efforts, an ability to provide consistent, high-quality, and secure products, services, features, and support, and our ability to successfully secure, maintain, and defend our rights to use the “Circle,” “USDC,” “EURC,” “USYC,” and “Arc” marks and other trademarks important to our brand. We have dedicated significant resources to protecting and promoting our brands and our ability to promote and protect our brands may require ongoing resources. We believe that the importance of our brands will increase as competition further intensifies. Our brands and reputation could be harmed if we fail to achieve these objectives.

We receive a high degree of media coverage in the digital assets ecosystem and around the world. Unfavorable publicity regarding, for example, our product changes, product quality, business partners, litigation or regulatory activity, privacy practices, terms of service, employment matters, the use of our products, services, or supported digital assets for illicit or objectionable ends, the actions of our customers and end-users, management practices, or the actions of other companies that provide similar services to ours, has in the past, and could in the future, adversely affect our reputation. Further, we have in the past, and may in the future, be the target of social media campaigns criticizing actual or perceived actions or inactions that are disfavored by our customers, end-users, employees, or society at large, which campaigns could materially impact our customers’ and end-users’ decisions to use our products and services. Any such negative publicity could have an adverse effect on the size, activity, and loyalty of our customers and end-users and result in a decrease in revenue, which could adversely affect our business, results of operations, financial condition, and prospects.

We have experienced significant growth, which we may encounter difficulties managing and which may not be sustainable.

We have experienced significant growth in recent years and may not fully understand the factors driving such short-term growth, some of which are beyond our control and may not be sustainable. As we grow and build out the Circle platform, our business becomes increasingly complex. We may encounter difficulties in managing our growth and the associated demands on our operational, risk management, sales and marketing, technology, compliance, and finance and accounting resources, which could disrupt our operations and make it difficult to execute our business strategy. We believe that to effectively manage and capitalize on our growth, we must continue to expand our information technology and financial, operating, and administrative systems and controls, and continue to manage headcount, capital, and processes efficiently. Our growth could strain our resources, cause operating difficulties, make it difficult to recruit and retain qualified employees and preserve our company culture, and divert our management’s attention from day-to-day activities in order to manage our growth. If we do not successfully manage our growth, we may experience erosion to our brand, the quality of our products and services may suffer, and our company culture may be harmed. Furthermore, we may be subject to significant liability resulting from any noncompliance with laws, be unable to obtain and maintain operating licenses or other authorizations, and experience loss of bank relationships that could substantially impair or even suspend company operations.

The future growth of our business depends on our ability to retain existing customers, attract new customers, manage our relationships with business and distribution partners, expand product offerings, and increase processed volumes and revenue from both new and existing customers. Under our standard API services agreement, our customers are not subject to any minimum volume commitments, and they have no obligation to continue to use our services. A customer’s use of our services may decrease for a variety of reasons, some of which are beyond our control, including:

•the customer’s level of confidence in and/or satisfaction with our products and services;

•the effectiveness of our support services;

•the pricing of our products and services;

•the pricing, range, and quality of competing products or services;

•the effects of global economic conditions, regulatory or financial institution limitations, and trust, perception, and interest in the digital asset industry and in our products and services;

•reductions in the customer’s payment activity; or

•competitors with perceived superior products or services.

Although there are complexities and costs associated with switching to a competitor, such costs may not be significant enough to prevent a customer from switching service providers, especially for larger customers who commonly engage more than one financial services provider at any one time. Therefore, there can be no assurance that we will be able to sustain our rate of growth or that we will retain existing customers.

We are constantly evaluating opportunities to expand our product offerings and the territories in which we offer our products. However, we have limited financial and management resources. As part of our resource allocation decisions, we may prioritize the development of certain products or expansion into certain territories. Such decisions involve inherent subjectivity and uncertainty, and there can be no assurance that we will not forgo or delay the pursuit of opportunities that later prove to have greater commercial potential and market acceptance. Our resource allocation decisions may cause us to fail to timely capitalize on viable commercial products or profitable market opportunities.

Any failure by us to retain existing customers, attract new customers, or increase revenue from both new and existing customers could materially and adversely affect our business, financial condition, results of operations, and prospects. These efforts may require substantial financial expenditures, commitments of resources, developments of our processes, and other investments and innovations.

Cyberattacks and security breaches of our systems, or those impacting our customers or third-party suppliers and vendors, could adversely impact our business, results of operations, financial condition, and prospects.

Our business involves the collection, use, storage, transmission, and other processing of confidential information—such as customer, employee, service provider, and other personal data—as well as information required to access customer assets. We have built our reputation on the premise that our products and services offer customers a secure way to accept and make payments and store value. As a result, any actual or perceived cyberattack or security breach of us or our third-party service providers or partners may:

•harm our reputation and brand;

•result in our systems or services being unavailable and interrupt our operations;

•result in improper disclosure of data and violations of applicable privacy and other laws;

•result in significant regulatory scrutiny, investigations, fines, penalties, and other legal, regulatory, and financial exposure;

•cause us to incur significant remediation and litigation costs;

•lead to theft or irretrievable loss of our or our customers’ assets;

•reduce customer confidence in, or decreased use of, our products and services;

•divert the attention of management from the operation of our business;

•result in significant compensation or contractual penalties from us to our customers or third parties as a result of losses to them or claims by them; and

•adversely affect our business and operating results.

Further, any actual or perceived cyberattack or security breach directed at financial institutions, or digital asset or blockchain companies, whether or not we are directly impacted, could lead to a general loss of confidence in the digital asset economy or in the use of technology to conduct financial transactions. Such loss of confidence could negatively impact us, including the market perception of the effectiveness of our security measures and technology infrastructure.

An increasing number of organizations—including large businesses, technology companies, and financial institutions as well as government institutions—have disclosed breaches of their information security systems, some of which have involved sophisticated and highly targeted cyberattacks or security breaches, including on their websites, mobile applications, and infrastructure. Attacks upon systems across a variety of industries, including the digital asset industry, are increasing in their frequency, persistence, and sophistication, and, in many cases, are being conducted by sophisticated, well-funded, and organized groups and individuals, including state actors. The techniques used to obtain unauthorized, improper, or illegal access to systems and information (including customers’ personal data and digital assets), disable or degrade services, or sabotage systems are constantly evolving, may involve new forms of technology that are not well understood such as quantum computing, may be difficult to detect quickly, and often are not recognized or detected until after they have been launched against a target. These cyberattacks or security breaches may occur on our systems or those of our third-party service providers or partners. Certain types of cyberattacks or security breaches could harm us even if our systems are left undisturbed. For example, cyberattacks or security breaches may be designed to deceive employees and service providers into releasing control of our systems to a hacker, while others may aim to introduce computer viruses or malware into our systems with a view to stealing confidential or proprietary data. Additionally, certain threats are designed to remain dormant or undetectable until launched against a target, and we may not be able to implement adequate preventative measures. Even when a cyberattack or security breach is detected, the full extent of the breach may not be determined immediately.

We have sought to develop systems and processes designed to protect the data we manage, prevent data loss and other cyberattacks or security breaches, and respond to known and potential risks, and we expect to continue to expend significant resources to bolster these protections. For example, we have sought to develop a security program and established controls aligned to the cybersecurity framework established by the National Institute of Standards and Technology; however, there are several areas that continue to be enhanced and are dependent on a robust asset and device inventory and management tool. This inventory and management tool will assist in enhancing several dependent security areas of focus: robust security operations (which will provide enhanced logging and monitoring), vulnerability management (which will track vulnerabilities to remediate), endpoint/network security (which will provide the ability to ensure consistent security controls to Circle endpoints and network), data protection (which will provide the ability to determine known data sources for appropriate data protection controls), and access management (which will provide the ability to have line of sight to all known applications to address IT governance and access control requirements). Despite our efforts, we may not have implemented all systems, security tools, measures, and processes that are consistent with industry standards and there can be no assurance that the security measures we have developed and implemented, or that we may develop and implement in the future, will provide absolute security or prevent cyberattacks or security breaches.

We may experience breaches of our security measures due to human error, malfeasance, insider threats, system errors or vulnerabilities, or other irregularities. Unauthorized parties have attempted, and we expect that they will continue to attempt, to gain access to our systems and facilities, as well as those of our customers, partners, and third-party service providers. Such unauthorized parties have used various means, including hacking, social engineering, phishing, and attempting to fraudulently induce individuals (including employees, service providers, and our customers) into disclosing usernames, passwords, or other sensitive information, which may in turn be attempted to be used to access our information technology systems and our customers’ digital assets. In the past, we have been subject to cybersecurity incidents in which fraudulent actors obtained company-owned funds. Threats can come from a variety of sources, including criminal hackers, hacktivists, state-sponsored intrusions, industrial espionage, and insiders. Certain threat actors may be supported by significant financial and technological resources, making them even more sophisticated and difficult to detect. As a result, our costs and the resources we devote to protecting against these advanced threats and their consequences may continue to increase over time.

A cyberattack or security breach that results in the unauthorized disclosure of personal information could also expose us to liability under various laws and regulations across jurisdictions and increase the risk of litigation and governmental or regulatory investigation. Due to concerns about information security and integrity, a growing number of legislative and regulatory bodies have adopted breach notification and other requirements in the event that information subject to such laws is accessed by unauthorized persons and additional regulations regarding security of such information are possible. We may in the future need to notify governmental authorities and affected individuals with respect to such incidents. For example, laws throughout the United States and in foreign jurisdictions, including in all 50 U.S. states, the EEA, the UK, and Singapore, may require businesses to provide notice under certain circumstances to consumers whose personal information has been disclosed as a result of a data breach. Some laws impose specific data breach reporting obligations if special categories of personal information is disclosed as a result of a cyberattack or information security breach. Complying with such numerous and complex regulations in the event of a cyberattack or information security breach would be expensive and difficult, and failure to comply with these regulations could subject us to regulatory scrutiny and additional liability. We may also be contractually required to notify customers or business partners of a cyberattack or security breach. Regardless of our contractual protections, any actual or perceived cyberattack or security breach, or breach of our legal or contractual obligations, could harm our reputation and brand, expose us to potential liability, or require us to expend significant resources on information security and in responding to any such actual or perceived incident or related investigations or litigation.

Although we maintain insurance coverage that we believe is adequate for our business, it may be insufficient to protect us against all losses and costs stemming from cyberattacks or security breaches, other types of unlawful activity, or any resulting disruptions from such events. Furthermore, there can be no assurance that we will be able to maintain such insurance coverage at reasonable costs or at all. Although we currently maintain disaster recovery and business continuity plans to address disruptions of our systems, we may not be able to adequately continue our business or return to operability within a reasonable period of time in the case of such an occurrence. Recovery of our systems may be additionally hampered where we have outsourced the operation of systems and information storage to third parties. Outages and disruptions of our systems, including any caused by cyberattacks or security breaches, may harm our business, results of operations, financial condition, and prospects.

As a remote-first company, we are subject to heightened operational and cybersecurity risks.

We are a remote-first company, meaning that a substantial majority of our employees work from their homes or shared office spaces hosted by third parties, which subjects us to heightened operational risks. For example, at these locations, technologies may not be as robust as those used in corporate offices, which could cause our networks, information systems, applications, and other tools to be more limited or less reliable, and our security systems may be less secure than those used in corporate offices. While we have implemented technical and administrative safeguards to help protect our systems as our employees and service providers work from home, we may be subject to increased cybersecurity risk that could expose us to risks of data or financial loss and could disrupt our business operations.

We use AI, machine learning, data analytics, and similar tools that collect, aggregate, and analyze data. Our use of such AI, machine learning, data analytics, and similar tools could enhance intellectual property, cybersecurity, operational, and technological risks, which could have an adverse effect on our business.

We increasingly use AI, machine learning, data analytics (including generative AI), and similar tools that collect, aggregate, and analyze data (collectively, “Data Tools”) in connection with our business, such as for customer support, AML alerts review, engineering code assistance, and producing marketing content with human oversight. Changes in model behavior, pricing, performance, or availability or concentration in a small number of providers could disrupt our processes or increase costs. Uncertainty around new and emerging Data Tools may require additional investment in the development of proprietary datasets, machine learning, large language models, and systems to test for accuracy, bias, and other variables, and computing capabilities. Moreover, market acceptance of Data Tools is uncertain. Utilizing Data Tools may have uncertain risks, particularly if those tools leverage machine learning or generative AI. In addition to the general risks that may exist from incomplete or inaccurate data, human error, or lack of appropriate controls and processes, the technologies underlying how we store and leverage data and their use cases are subject to a variety of laws, including intellectual property, privacy, consumer protection, and federal equal opportunity laws. If we do not have sufficient rights to use the data on which various tools rely, we may incur liability through the violation of such laws, third-party privacy, or other rights or contracts to which we are a party.

Additionally, we may see increasing government and supranational regulation and ethical concerns related to the use of Data Tools that may also significantly increase the burden and cost of research, development, and compliance in this area. This includes the European Union’s Artificial Intelligence Act, which came into force on August 1, 2024. Because of the interest in Data Tools by many governmental authorities, there may be additional laws or regulations that limit or restrict our ability to use such Data Tools or apply novel liability frameworks to the use of such Data Tools, and any of the foregoing may cause adverse effects to our business, operations or financial condition.

We are and may continue to be subject to litigation, including individual and class action lawsuits, as well as regulatory audits, disputes, inquiries, investigations, and enforcement actions by regulators and governmental authorities.

We have been and may from time to time become subject to material claims, arbitrations, individual and class action lawsuits, government and regulatory investigations, inquiries, actions, or requests and other proceedings alleging violations of laws, rules, and regulations, both foreign and domestic, involving the provision of regulated financial services, intellectual property, privacy, data protection, information security, AML, counter-terrorism financing, sanctions, anti-corruption, securities, tax, labor and employment, payment network rules, commercial disputes, services, third-party relationships and other matters. The number and significance of our actual disputes and inquiries have increased as we have grown larger, our business has expanded in scope and geographic reach, and our products and services have increased in complexity.

For example, we are currently in a dispute with a financial advisor (Financial Technology Partners, or “FT Partners”) regarding two engagement letters between the parties originally entered into in 2020, which, among other things, provided FT Partners a fee of 7% of the gross proceeds from certain capital raises. In 2022, our board of directors adopted resolutions terminating both engagement letters. On May 28, 2024, FT Partners filed a lawsuit against Circle Ireland and various subsidiary companies, now pending in the U.S. District Court for the Southern District of New York. The operative complaint alleges, among other things, that the terminations of both engagement letters are ineffective and demanded, among other relief, fees and interest for various transactions that occurred after termination of the engagement letters, including the IPO and follow-on public offering. We believe that the transactions at issue, in which we received aggregate cash and in kind proceeds of approximately $1.9 billion, were consummated after we properly and effectively terminated our engagements with FT Partners, and strenuously dispute FT Partners’ demand for any fees allegedly arising under the engagement letters. While we intend to defend ourselves vigorously, there can be no assurance as to the outcome at this stage. If this dispute is ultimately resolved by the court in a manner adverse to our position, or if we ultimately settle this dispute by mutual agreement, we may be required to make payments to FT Partners in cash or equity or a combination thereof, which amounts may be substantial. Depending on the resolution of this matter, we may also remain obligated to pay significant fees to FT Partners for future capital raises or company sale transactions.

In addition, our prior business lines may continue to expose us to claims, arbitrations, and lawsuits by former or existing clients. For example, we have been and, from time to time, may become subject to various legal proceedings, consumer arbitrations, and regulatory investigation matters.

Our relationships with third parties may also expose us to additional regulatory scrutiny. We may have or in the future enter into or expand relationships and/or contractual arrangements with third parties that lead to certain regulators asserting their jurisdiction or oversight over us or taking other adverse actions toward us, and we could face additional regulatory consequences as a result. Additionally, while we adopt a regulatory-first posture, as the legal and regulatory landscape surrounding our business is evolving, we may disagree with and challenge regulators’ decisions and actions if we believe such decisions and actions are not grounded in law or regulation. Moreover, the laws, rules, and regulations affecting our business—including those pertaining to stablecoins, digital assets, internet and mobile services, as well as payment and other financial services—are subject to ongoing interpretation by the courts and regulatory authorities. The resulting uncertainty in the scope and application of these laws, rules, and regulations increases the risk that we will be subject to investigations, enforcement actions, and private claims alleging violations of those laws, rules, and regulations.

The scope, determination, and impact of claims, lawsuits, regulatory investigations, enforcement actions, disputes, and proceedings to which we are subject cannot be predicted with certainty, and may result in:

•substantial payments to satisfy judgments, fines, or penalties;

•substantial outside counsel legal fees and costs;

•additional compliance and licensure requirements;

•loss or nonrenewal of existing licenses or authorizations, or prohibition from or delays in obtaining additional licenses or authorizations, required for our business;

•loss of productivity and high demands on employee time;

•civil or criminal sanctions or consent decrees;

•termination of certain employees, including members of our executive team;

•barring of certain employees from participating in our business in whole or in part;

•orders that restrict our business or prevent us from offering certain products or services;

•changes to our business model and practices;

•delays to planned transactions, product launches, and improvements; and

•damage to our brand and reputation.

Regardless of the outcome, any such matters can have an adverse impact, which may be material, on our business, results of operations, financial condition, and prospects because of legal costs, diversion of management resources, reputational damage, and other factors.

Risks related to our financial condition

Fluctuations in interest rates could impact our results of operations.

Our results of operations are exposed to changes in interest rates, among other macroeconomic conditions. Interest rate risk is highly sensitive to many factors, including governmental monetary and tax policies, domestic and international economic and political considerations, and other factors beyond our control. For the years ended December 31, 2025, 2024, and 2023, our reserve income earned from the management of Circle stablecoin-related reserves represented 96.0%, 99.1%, and 98.6% of our total revenue from continuing operations, respectively. Fluctuations in interest rates impact reserve return rates, such that a decrease in interest rates reduces reserve return rates and an increase in interest rates increases reserve return rates. Reserve return rate is a contributing factor to reserve income, which in turn is a contributor to distribution costs. As such, fluctuations in interest rates may result in changes in reserve income and in turn distribution costs. However, interest rates are only one contributor to reserve income, and the other primary contributor—USDC in circulation—is inherently difficult to predict given the uncertainties in end-user and customer behavior. For example, although interest rates are positively correlated with the opportunity cost of holding USDC versus other financial instruments, given the utility of USDC as a means for the exchange of value, an increase in interest rates does not necessarily result in a decrease in USDC in circulation (and vice versa). Any relationship between interest rates and USDC in circulation is complex, highly uncertain, and unproven. As a result, while we are able to predict the impact of interest rate changes on the reserve return rate, given the uncertainties in customer behavior and interests and market dynamics, we are unable to accurately predict the impact of changes in interest rates on our results of operations.

Fluctuations in currency exchange rates could adversely impact Circle.

We earn interest in U.S. dollars with respect to USDC and in euros with respect to EURC. Our expenses are primarily denominated in U.S. dollars and are also denominated in currencies other than the U.S. dollar. Accordingly, fluctuations in exchange rates between the U.S. dollar and the euro could affect our revenue and operating results reflected in our U.S. dollar-denominated financial statements. We do not currently engage in hedging transactions to limit our exchange rate risk, and there can be no assurance that we will do so or do so successfully in the future. Changes in tax laws and policies could adversely impact our financial condition and results of operations. We are subject to income taxes in the United States and subject to tax laws in various foreign jurisdictions. The determination of our worldwide provision for income taxes and other tax liabilities will require the exercise of judgment by our management, and there are many transactions where the ultimate tax determination is uncertain. We believe that our provision for income taxes to date has been reasonable, but tax authorities, through a review or audit, may disagree with certain positions we have taken. Any adverse outcome of such a review or audit could impact our worldwide effective tax rate, increase our taxable income, and change the non-income taxes imposed on our business. While we have established reserves based on assumptions and estimates that we believe are reasonable to cover such eventualities, these reserves may prove to be insufficient.

In October 2021, the members of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (“OECD”)/G20 inclusive framework on Base Erosion and Profit Shifting (the “Inclusive Framework”) published a statement updating and finalizing the key components of a two-pillar plan (“Pillar Two”) to implement a global minimum corporate tax rate of 15% for companies with revenue above €750 million, calculated on a country-by-country basis. The Inclusive Framework plan has now been agreed to by more than 140 OECD members, including jurisdictions in which Circle operates, or may operate in the future. However, on June 26, 2025, the U.S. Department of the Treasury and the other G7 countries (including Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, the United Kingdom and the European Union) reached an agreement to exclude U.S. companies from certain aspects of Pillar Two. We will continue to monitor the implementation of the Inclusive Framework agreement by the remaining countries in which we operate, or may operate in the future. We are unable to predict when and how the Inclusive Framework agreement will be enacted into law in these remaining countries; however, it is possible that the implementation of the Inclusive Framework agreement could have a material effect on our liability for corporate taxes and our consolidated effective tax rate.

In addition, the U.S. federal income and foreign tax treatment of transactions involving digital assets are uncertain, and it is unclear what guidance may be issued in the future on the treatment of digital asset transactions for U.S. federal income and foreign tax purposes. See “—Future developments regarding the treatment of Circle stablecoins and other stablecoins for U.S. federal income, state, and foreign tax purposes could adversely impact our business.”

On November 15, 2021, former President Biden signed into law the Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act (the “IIJA”). The IIJA implements a set of comprehensive tax information reporting rules that apply to persons, including digital asset trading platforms and custodians, that regularly effect transfers of digital assets on behalf of other persons. In particular, these rules require digital asset trading platforms and custodians to report certain digital asset transactions (including sales, exchanges, and other transfers) effected on behalf of other persons on an annual return, in a manner similar to the current reporting rules for brokers that effect stock and other securities transactions on behalf of customers. The IRS and the U.S. Department of the Treasury subsequently released a series of final regulations to implement certain of these rules. The final regulations do not address all aspects of the IIJA information reporting regime and their application is uncertain in a number of respects, including with respect to the collection and reporting of cost basis information for digital assets and the scope of transactions subject to reporting. Moreover, it is possible that future revisions to the regulations will substantially alter the rules contained in the current regulations. Accordingly, there remains substantial uncertainty regarding the manner and extent to which the information reporting rules contemplated by the IIJA will be implemented.

In addition, the IIJA extends the reporting requirements for businesses that receive more than $10,000 in cash in a transaction (or related transactions) to transactions involving the receipt of digital assets with a fair market value of more than $10,000. These rules and the information reporting rules discussed above, the effects of which may depend in significant part on further regulatory or other guidance from the IRS as well as legal challenges and judicial decisions, could create significant compliance burdens and uncertainties for us and our customers, and could affect the price of digital assets, which could have an adverse effect on our business.

The nature of our business requires the application of complex financial accounting rules, and there is limited guidance from accounting standard-setting bodies.

The accounting rules and regulations that we must comply with are complex and subject to interpretation by the Financial Accounting Standards Board (the “FASB”), the SEC, and various bodies formed to promulgate and interpret appropriate accounting principles. A change in these principles or interpretations could have a significant effect on our reported financial results and may even affect the reporting of transactions completed before the announcement or effectiveness of a change.

Further, there have been limited precedents for the financial accounting of stablecoins and other digital assets and related valuation and revenue recognition considerations. As such, there remains significant uncertainty on how companies should account for stablecoin and other digital asset transactions, value, and related revenue. Uncertainties in or changes to regulatory or financial accounting standards could result in the need to change our accounting methods and/or restate our financial statements and impair our ability to provide timely and accurate financial information, which could adversely affect our financial statements, result in a loss of investor confidence, and more generally impact our business, results of operations, financial condition, and prospects.

If we fail to develop and maintain an effective system of disclosure controls and internal control over financial reporting, our ability to produce timely and accurate financial statements or comply with applicable laws and regulations could be impaired.

Effective internal control over financial reporting is necessary for us to provide reliable financial reports and, together with adequate disclosure controls and procedures, is designed to prevent and/or detect error and/or fraud in a timely manner. Any failure to develop or maintain effective controls or any difficulties encountered in their implementation or improvement could harm our operating results or cause us to fail to meet our reporting obligations and may result in a restatement of our annual or interim financial statements.

Our independent registered public accounting firm is not required to formally attest to the effectiveness of our internal control over financial reporting until our second Annual Report on Form 10-K. When our independent registered public accounting firm formally attests to the effectiveness of our internal control over financial reporting, it may issue a report that is adverse in the event it is not satisfied with the level at which our internal control over financial reporting is documented, designed, or operating. If we are not able to complete our initial assessment of our internal controls and otherwise implement the requirements of Section 404 of the Sarbanes-Oxley Act in a timely manner or with adequate compliance, our independent registered public accounting firm may not be able to opine as to the adequacy of our internal control over financial reporting. Any failure to implement and maintain effective internal control over financial reporting also could adversely affect the results of periodic management evaluations and annual independent registered public accounting firm attestation reports regarding the effectiveness of our internal control over financial reporting that we will eventually be required to include in our periodic reports that are filed with the SEC. Ineffective disclosure controls and procedures and internal control over financial reporting could also cause investors to lose confidence in our reported financial and other information, which would likely have a negative effect on the trading price of our Class A common stock.

We might require additional capital to support business growth.

We have funded our operations since inception primarily through equity financings, convertible notes issuances, and revenue generated by our products and services. We intend to continue to make investments in our business to respond to business opportunities, including developing new products and services, enhancing our operating infrastructure, expanding our international operations, and acquiring complementary businesses and technologies, all of which may require us to secure additional funds.

We do not have any committed external source of funds and additional funds may not be available when we need them or on terms that are acceptable to us. Our ability to raise additional funds will depend on financial, economic, and market conditions and other factors, over which we may have no or limited control. We may seek additional capital through a variety of means, including through public and private equity offerings and debt financings, credit and loan facilities, and collaborations. If we raise additional capital through the sale of equity or convertible debt securities, your ownership interest will be diluted, and the terms of such equity or convertible debt securities may include liquidation or other preferences that are senior to or otherwise adversely affect your rights as a shareholder. If we raise additional capital through the sale of debt securities or through entering into credit or loan facilities, we may be restricted in our ability to take certain actions, such as incurring additional debt, making capital expenditures, acquiring or licensing intellectual property rights, declaring dividends, or encumbering our assets to secure future indebtedness. Such restrictions could adversely impact our ability to conduct our operations and execute our business plan. If we raise additional capital through collaborations with third parties, we may be required to relinquish valuable rights to our intellectual property, technology, and products or we may be required to grant licenses to our intellectual property, technology, and products on unfavorable terms.

The prices of digital assets are extremely volatile, and price fluctuations may adversely impact the value of digital assets that we hold.

Digital assets have historically experienced high levels of volatility far in excess of that experienced in fiat currencies. A number of factors contribute to changes in digital asset prices and volatility, including changes in the supply and demand for a particular digital asset, regulatory actions, market sentiment, macroeconomic factors, utility of a particular digital asset, and idiosyncratic events such as exchange outages or commentary on social media. We are exposed to price volatility with respect to the digital assets we own. Though our fundamental business and growth strategy does not include acquiring digital assets for the purpose of value appreciation, we have some degree of exposure to digital assets to facilitate the operation of our stablecoin network, and as part of our involvement in the governance of blockchain networks that are part of our stablecoin ecosystem, including instances where our customers may pay us in digital assets. To the extent customers compensate us in the form of digital assets, and we continue to hold these digital assets, we may be subject to the high degree of price and earnings volatility associated with these digital assets. A decline in the value of the digital assets we hold in higher concentrations may have a larger adverse impact on our operating results in any given period. Volatility in the value of digital assets or other market factors may limit our ability to convert digital assets into fiat currency at attractive prices or at all.

Risks related to government regulation

We are subject to an extensive and highly evolving regulatory landscape.

Our business is subject to extensive laws, rules, regulations, policies, orders, determinations, directives, treaties, and legal and regulatory interpretations and guidance in the markets in which we operate, including those governing banking, securities, broker-dealers, commodities, credit, cross-border and domestic money and digital asset transmission, custody, commercial lending, privacy, data governance, data protection, cybersecurity, fraud detection, payment services, escheatment, antitrust and competition, bankruptcy, tax, anti-bribery, economic and trade sanctions, AML, and counter-terrorism financing. Many of these legal and regulatory regimes were adopted prior to the advent of the internet, mobile technologies, digital assets, and related technologies. As a result, they often do not contemplate or address unique issues associated with the blockchain technology and digital assets economy, are subject to significant uncertainty, and vary widely across U.S. federal, state, and local and international jurisdictions. These legal and regulatory regimes, including the laws, rules, and regulations thereunder, evolve frequently and may be modified, interpreted, and applied in an inconsistent manner from one jurisdiction to another, as well as may conflict with one another.

Moreover, the complexity and evolving nature of our business and the uncertainty surrounding the regulation of digital assets and blockchain technology require us to assess whether certain laws, rules, and regulations apply to us. It is possible that governmental bodies and regulators may disagree with our conclusions. Additionally, from time to time, we may launch new products, establish or expand relationships or enter into contractual agreements with counterparties that are subject to increased regulatory attention or oversight. As a result, certain of our regulators may seek to intervene and assert their jurisdiction or impose additional scrutiny over such products or relationships or take other adverse actions toward us (and we may seek to challenge such actions if we believe such actions are not grounded in law or regulation), which may lead to increased compliance costs and potential adverse regulatory consequences that might delay or compel us to abandon or restructure these products or commercial relationships. To the extent we have not complied with such laws, rules, and regulations, or regulators, courts, or other authorities take the view that we have not complied with such laws, rules, and regulations, we could be subject to significant fines, revocation of licenses, limitations on our products and services, reputational harm, and other regulatory consequences, each of which may be significant and could adversely affect our business, results of operations, financial condition, and prospects.

Further, our business model relies on our ability to market and sell, through our suite of products and services, the utility of Circle stablecoins and any other digital assets we may launch to existing and potential customers. Our API services involve offering certain payment functionality, payout, or disbursement functionality as well as wallet services to our customers utilizing Circle products. We additionally offer a suite of developer products and services aimed at developers, but available to any customer, to enable them to build on the functionality of our suite of products. The use of our services by customers, as well as the integration of our products and services into the product offerings that our customers make available to end-users, could raise regulatory questions. Financial services regulators in the United States or in other jurisdictions around the world may not agree with our legal positions. In addition, should financial services regulators make changes to or alter interpretations of applicable laws and regulations as they relate to Circle products, we may be unable to continue offering certain products to customers in certain jurisdictions or we may have to alter the services in a manner that may be materially detrimental to our financial performance.

In addition to existing laws and regulations, various governmental and regulatory bodies—including legislative and executive bodies in the United States and in other countries (including where we are currently regulated or licensed)—may adopt new, or may modify existing, laws and regulations, which may adversely impact the development of the digital assets ecosystem as a whole and our legal and regulatory status in particular by changing how we operate our business, how our products and services are regulated, what assets we can hold as stablecoin reserves, and what products or services we and our competitors can offer. Furthermore, as our industry matures and acceptance and use of stablecoins increase, governments may mandate interoperability of stablecoins. These developments may also require changes to our business operations, alter our compliance and risk mitigation measures, or impose new licensing requirements. We may be further subject to administrative sanctions for technical violations or customer attrition if the end-user experience suffers as a result.

The regulatory environment to which we are subject gives rise to various licensing requirements, significant compliance costs, and other restrictions, and noncompliance could result in a range of penalties, including fines, compliance costs, operational restrictions, reputational damage, and loss of licenses.

The licenses and registrations we hold subject us to, among other things, record-keeping, reporting, and bonding requirements, limitations on the investment of customer funds, and examination by state and federal regulatory agencies.

There can be no assurance that we will be able to maintain our existing, or obtain additional, required regulatory licenses, certifications, and regulatory approvals in the countries where we provide services or want to expand. Furthermore, where we have obtained such regulatory licenses, certifications, and regulatory approvals, there are substantial costs and potential product changes involved in maintaining such regulatory licenses, certifications, and approvals, and we could be subject to fines or other enforcement action if we are found to violate disclosure, reporting, AML, capitalization, corporate governance, or other requirements of such licenses. These factors could impose substantial additional costs and involve considerable delay to the development or provision of our products or services, or could require significant and costly operational changes or prevent us from providing any products or services in a given market.

These laws, regulations, and standards are subject to varying interpretations, in many cases due to their lack of specificity or unclear application to the business of nontraditional financial services. As a result, their application in practice may evolve over time as new guidance is provided by supervisory authorities, and the interpretation of requirements by supervisory authorities and courts may be further clarified over time. If our efforts to comply with new laws, regulations, and standards differ from the activities intended by regulatory bodies or supervisory authorities due to ambiguities related to their interpretation, application, and practice, supervisory authorities may initiate legal and regulatory proceedings against us. As a result, our business, results of operations, financial condition, and prospects could be materially and adversely affected.

In certain jurisdictions, it may not be clear whether we are required to be licensed as a money transmitter, payment services provider, bank, financial institution, custodian, broker-dealer, exchange, or otherwise. In such cases, regulators, courts, or other authorities may disagree with our interpretation of such licensing requirements. To the extent we have not complied with such laws, rules, and regulations, or regulators, courts, or other authorities take the view that we have not complied with such laws, rules, and regulations, we could be subject to significant fines, revocation of licenses, limitations on our products and services, reputational harm, and other regulatory consequences, each of which may be significant and could adversely affect our business, results of operations, financial condition, and prospects. Local regulators may use their power to slow or halt transactions or otherwise prohibit us from doing business in a country. We and our local businesses do not only need to comply with the local laws and regulations, but also with certain laws and regulations with worldwide application.

We offer our products and services in jurisdictions in which we believe we possess all necessary licenses and we have established procedures that we believe are reasonably designed to ensure that our customers are located in such jurisdictions, such as the application process for Circle Mint accounts, terms of service, and other agreements. However, there can be no assurance that unauthorized or impermissible customer or end-user access to our products and services outside of these jurisdictions will not occur. Should such authorized or impermissible customer access occur, we could be subject to fines, reputational harm, and other regulatory consequences, each of which may be significant and could adversely affect our business, results of operations, financial condition, and prospects. Furthermore, because our products and services are accessible worldwide and we facilitate Circle stablecoin transfers worldwide, one or more jurisdictions may claim that we or our customers or partners are required to comply with their laws. Laws regulating the internet, mobile, and related technologies outside the United States may impose different, more specific, or even conflicting obligations on us, as well as broader liability.

If we are unable to commit sufficient resources for regulatory compliance, this could lead to delays and errors and may force us to choose between prioritizing compliance matters over administrative support for business activities, or may ultimately force us to cease the offering of certain products or services globally or in certain jurisdictions. Any delays or errors in implementing regulatory compliance, or even allegations or investigations by regulators claiming that we have not properly complied, could lead to substantial monetary damages and fines, public reprimands, a material adverse effect on our reputation, cease-and-desist orders, increased regulatory compliance requirements or other potential regulatory restrictions on our business, enforced suspension of operations, and in extreme cases, withdrawal of regulatory licenses or authorizations to operate particular businesses, along with criminal prosecution in certain circumstances.

In addition to noncompliance by us, we may in the future suffer negative consequences of noncompliance by third parties that we rely upon to serve our customers. In addition, we could be negatively impacted as a result of current or potential future laws and regulations applicable to the operations of miners or validators of the blockchain networks on which our stablecoins are built. We may also suffer negative consequences of customers operating businesses or schemes in violation of applicable rules and regulations whose activities we could be held responsible to monitor and, where applicable, to denounce or to interrupt our extension of services to such customers and, if necessary, terminate the relationship with such party. We may be required to make greater expenditures and devote additional resources to addressing these liabilities and requirements, which could have an adverse effect on our business, results of operations, financial condition, and prospects.

The financial services industry is subject to intensive regulation.

In pursuit of a broad reform and restructuring of financial services regulation, national and supranational legislatures and supervisory authorities continue to introduce and implement a wide range of proposals that could result in major changes to the way our global operations are regulated and could have adverse consequences for our business, business model, results of operations, financial condition, and prospects. The timing and full impact of new laws and regulations cannot be predicted or determined and are beyond our control. The introduction of these and other new rules and requirements could significantly impact the manner in which we operate, particularly in situations where regulation or legislation can interfere with or even set aside existing contractual arrangements. These changes could materially impact the profitability of our businesses, require changes to business practices, or force us to discontinue businesses or cease to offer certain services or products, or cease to serve certain types of customers, and adversely impact us through potential additional costs, taxes, liabilities, enforcement actions, and reputational damage.

The large number of legislative initiatives, in particular with respect to the financial services industry, requires constant attention from our senior management and consumes significant levels of resources to identify and analyze the implications of these initiatives. We may have to adapt our strategy, operations, and businesses, including policies, procedures, and documentation, to comply with these new legal requirements. Based on the volume of existing initiatives, it is possible that certain new requirements will not be implemented in a timely fashion without errors, or otherwise in a manner not satisfactory to the applicable supervisory authority, resulting in noncompliance and possible associated negative consequences such as administrative fines or public reprimands.

If we were deemed to be an investment company under the 1940 Act, applicable restrictions likely would make it impractical for us to continue our business as currently contemplated.

Under Sections 3(a)(1)(A) and (C) of the 1940 Act, a company generally will be deemed to be an “investment company” if (i) it is, or holds itself out as being, engaged primarily, or proposes to engage primarily, in the business of investing, reinvesting, or trading in securities or (ii) it engages, or proposes to engage, in the business of investing, reinvesting, owning, holding, or trading in securities and it owns or proposes to acquire investment securities having a value exceeding 40% of the value of its total assets (exclusive of U.S. government securities, shares of registered money market funds under Rule 2a-7 of the 1940 Act, and cash items) on an unconsolidated basis. Rule 3a-1 under the 1940 Act generally provides that notwithstanding the Section 3(a)(1)(C) test described in clause (ii) above, an entity will not be deemed to be an “investment company” for purposes of the 1940 Act if no more than 45% of the value of its assets (exclusive of U.S. government securities, shares of registered money market funds under Rule 2a-7 of the 1940 Act, and cash items) consists of, and no more than 45% of its net income after taxes (for the past four fiscal quarters combined) is derived from, securities other than U.S. government securities, shares of registered money market funds under Rule 2a-7 of the 1940 Act, securities issued by employees’ securities companies, securities issued by qualifying majority owned subsidiaries of such entity, and securities issued by qualifying companies that are controlled primarily by such entity. We do not believe that we are an “investment company” as such term is defined in either Section 3(a)(1)(A) or Section 3(a)(1)(C) of the 1940 Act.

Stablecoins and other digital assets, as well as new business models and transactions enabled by blockchain technologies, present novel interpretive questions under the 1940 Act. There is a risk that assets or arrangements that we have concluded are not securities could be deemed to be securities by the SEC or another authority for purposes of the 1940 Act, which would increase the percentage of securities held by us for 1940 Act purposes.

If we were to be deemed an investment company in the future, restrictions imposed by the 1940 Act—including limitations on our ability to issue different classes of stock and equity compensation to directors, officers, and employees and restrictions on management, operations, and transactions with affiliated persons—likely would make it impractical for us to continue our business as contemplated, and could have a material adverse effect on our business, results of operations, financial condition, and prospects. In addition, we may be required to limit the types of assets we hold as reserve assets, which may constrain our international operations and our operational flexibility, among other things, or otherwise conduct our business in a manner that does not subject us to the registration and other requirements of the 1940 Act.

We are subject to laws, regulations, and executive orders regarding economic and trade sanctions, anti-bribery, AML, and counter-terrorism financing that could impair our ability to compete in international markets or subject us to criminal or civil liability if we violate them. As we continue to expand and localize our international activities, our obligations to comply with the laws, rules, regulations, and policies of a variety of jurisdictions will increase and we may be subject to investigations and enforcement actions by U.S. and non-U.S. regulators and governmental authorities.

As we expand and localize our international activities, we have and will become increasingly obligated to comply with the laws, rules, regulations, policies, and legal interpretations of the jurisdictions in which we operate and those into which we offer services on a cross-border basis. Laws regulating financial services, the internet, mobile technologies, digital assets, and related technologies outside the United States often impose different, more specific, or even conflicting obligations on us, as well as broader liability.

We are required to comply with applicable U.S. economic and trade sanctions administered by the Office of Foreign Assets Control of the U.S. Department of the Treasury (“OFAC”), as well as similar requirements in other jurisdictions. We have processes in place reasonably designed to promote compliance with applicable U.S. and non-U.S. sanctions requirements. The OFAC regulations and requirements generally restrict dealings by persons subject to U.S. jurisdiction with certain countries, or subnational territories that are the target of comprehensive sanctions, which currently are Cuba, Iran, and North Korea, as well as Crimea, the so-called Donetsk People’s Republic, and the so-called Luhansk People’s Republic regions of Ukraine. In addition, OFAC restricts dealings by persons subject to U.S. jurisdiction with specific individuals and entities that are the subject of targeted sanctions, including persons identified on blocked persons lists.

We are also subject to various AML and counter-terrorism financing laws and regulations around the world that prohibit, among other things, our involvement in transferring the proceeds of criminal activities. In the United States, many of our activities are subject to AML laws and regulations, including the BSA and other similar laws and regulations. The BSA, among other things, requires money transmitters to develop and implement risk-based AML programs; to report large cash transactions and suspicious activity; and, in some cases, to collect and maintain information about customers who use their services and maintain other transaction records. Regulators in the United States and globally continue to increase their scrutiny of compliance with these obligations, which may require us to further revise or expand our compliance program, including the procedures we use to verify the identity of our customers and to monitor transactions on our system, which would include payments to persons outside the United States. Regulators regularly reexamine the transaction volume thresholds at which we must obtain and keep applicable records or verify identities of customers. Any change in such thresholds could result in greater costs for compliance. We also could be subject to potentially significant fines, penalties, inquiries, audits, investigations, enforcement actions, and criminal and civil liability if regulators or third-party auditors identify gaps in our AML program that are not sufficiently remediated, or if our AML program is found to violate the BSA.

Despite our efforts to comply with applicable laws and regulations, there can be no guarantee that regulators and/or law enforcement will view these measures as compliant with the BSA or U.S. sanctions laws and regulations. If regulators and/or law enforcement find that we have violated the BSA or U.S. sanctions laws and regulations, or we are otherwise the subject of government investigations for alleged violations of the BSA or U.S. sanctions laws and regulations, such investigations and alleged violations could result in negative consequences for us, including costs related to government investigations, financial penalties, and harm to our reputation. The impact on us related to these matters could be substantial. Although we have implemented controls and screening tools designed to prevent violative activity, there is no guarantee that we will not inadvertently provide our products and services to individuals, entities, or governments in violation of the BSA or U.S. sanctions laws and regulations.

Regulators worldwide frequently study each other’s approaches to the regulation of the blockchain technology and digital assets. Consequently, developments in any jurisdiction may influence other jurisdictions. Further, new developments in one jurisdiction may be extended to additional services and other jurisdictions. As a result, the risks created by any new law or regulation in one jurisdiction are magnified by the potential that they may be replicated in another jurisdiction, which in turn would affect our business across multiple jurisdictions and/or across our services and products. Conversely, if regulations diverge worldwide, we may face difficulty adjusting our products, services, and other aspects of our business with the same effect. These risks are heightened as we face increased competitive pressure from other similarly situated businesses that engage in regulatory arbitrage to avoid the compliance costs associated with regulatory changes.

We may operate our business in foreign countries where companies often engage in business practices that are prohibited by the U.S. and other jurisdictions’ regulations applicable to us. We are subject to anti-corruption laws and regulations, including the U.S. Foreign Corrupt Practices Act of 1977 (the “FCPA”), the Irish Criminal Justice (Corruption Offenses) Act 2018, and other laws that prohibit the making or offering of improper payments to foreign government officials and political figures, including anti-bribery provisions enforced by the U.S. Department of Justice and the SEC. The FCPA, for example, prohibits U.S. persons and entities from making improper payments or offers of payments to foreign governments and their officials and political parties by the United States and other business entities for the purpose of obtaining or retaining business. We have implemented policies, procedures, systems, and controls designed to identify and address potentially impermissible transactions under such laws and regulations. However, there can be no assurance that all of our employees, consultants, and agents—including those that may be based in or from countries where practices that violate U.S. or other laws may be customary—will not take actions in violation of our policies, for which we may be ultimately responsible.

The complexity of U.S. federal and state and international regulatory and enforcement regimes, coupled with the global scope of our operations and the evolving global regulatory environment, could result in a single event prompting a large number of overlapping investigations and proceedings by multiple government authorities in different jurisdictions. Furthermore, due to the uncertain application of existing laws and regulations, it may be that, despite our regulatory and legal analysis concluding that certain products and services are currently unregulated or fit within a particular category of regulatory activities, such products or services may indeed be subject to financial regulation, licensing, or authorization obligations that we have not obtained or with which we have not complied. As a result, we are at a heightened risk of enforcement action, litigation, and regulatory and legal scrutiny, which could lead to sanctions, cease-and-desist orders, or other penalties and censures. Any of the foregoing could, individually or in the aggregate, have a material adverse effect on our business, results of operations, financial condition, and prospects.

Our Consolidated Balance Sheets may not contain sufficient amounts or types of regulatory capital to meet the changing requirements of our various regulators worldwide.

Effective management of our capital and liquidity is critical to our ability to operate our businesses, to grow organically, and to pursue our strategy. As a regulated and licensed entity in various jurisdictions, we are required to possess sufficient financial soundness and strength to adequately support our regulated affiliate entities. The maintenance of adequate capital and liquidity is also necessary for our financial flexibility in the face of turbulence and uncertainty in the global economy. We may from time to time incur indebtedness and other obligations which could make it more difficult to meet capital, liquidity, or other regulatory requirements.

In addition, although we are not a bank holding company under U.S. law or the law of any other jurisdiction, as a result of both the enactment of the GENIUS Act and our conditional approval for our national trust bank, we will become subject to new capital and liquidity requirements. Moreover, as a global provider of financial services and in light of the changing regulatory environment in various jurisdictions, we could become subject to other capital requirements introduced or imposed by U.S. federal, state, or international regulators. The establishment of, or changes to, applicable current or future capital and liquidity requirements may require us to raise additional regulatory capital or hold additional reserves. Such additional burdens could arise, for example, because of different interpretations of or methods for calculating risk exposure amounts or liquidity outflows or inflows, because we do not comply with ratios and levels, or because instruments and collateral requirements that currently qualify as capital or capital risk mitigating techniques no longer do so in the future. If we are unable to raise the requisite regulatory capital, we may be required to reduce the amount of our risk exposure amount or business levels, restrict certain activities, or engage in the disposition of core and other noncore businesses, which may not occur on a timely basis, if at all, or at prices that would not otherwise be attractive to us. Furthermore, our inability to raise sufficient regulatory capital could have an adverse effect on the market’s trust in the long-term viability of our products and services, which could, for example, result in customers transferring to our competitors’ platforms for the provision of stablecoins and/or payments infrastructure. As a result of stricter liquidity or reserve requirements, we may be required to optimize our funding composition, which may result in higher funding costs for us. In addition, our having to maintain buffers of liquid assets may result in lower returns than less liquid assets.

Regulators also may increase the amount of fiat currency reserves that we are required to maintain for our operations. For instance, issuers of significant e-money tokens in the EU are required under MiCAR to hold at least 60% of the funds received in exchange for e-money tokens as fiat currency deposits in separate accounts at EU banks. If other global governments chose to pursue a similar policy, it could complicate our operations and increase our expenses. Any noncompliance may lead to sanctions, penalties, changes to our business operations, or the revocation of licenses.

We maintain complex treasury operations to manage and move customer assets across our platform and to comply with regulatory requirements. However, it is possible we may experience errors in fiat currency and digital asset handling, accounting, and regulatory reporting that lead us to be out of compliance with these requirements.

The above regulations and any changes thereto that limit our ability to manage effectively our balance sheet, liquidity position, and capital resources going forward, or to access funding sources, could have a material adverse impact on our business, results of operations, financial condition, and prospects.

We obtain and process a large amount of customer data, including sensitive customer data. Any real or perceived improper use of, disclosure of, or access to such data could impose liability on us or harm our reputation and thus have an adverse effect on our business.

Our operations involve the collection, storage, transmission, and/or other processing of customer data, including highly sensitive data of our customers such as identity data, financial data, transaction data, marketing, and communication data and location data, among other types of information. We use various methods to collect customer data. For example, we may collect customer data from direct interactions with customers, such as when customers fill in forms or correspond with us. We may also collect customer data, including usage and technical data, through the use of automated technologies such as logging and cookies. Furthermore, we may receive customer data from various third parties or publicly available sources, including providers of technical or payment services. Consequently, we are subject to complex and evolving U.S., UK, European, and other jurisdictions’ laws, rules, regulations, orders, and directives (referred to as “privacy laws”) relating to the collection, use, retention, security, transfer, and other processing of personal information (referred to as “personal data”) in the countries where we operate. Much of the personal data that we process, especially financial information, is regulated by multiple privacy laws and, in some cases, the privacy laws of multiple jurisdictions. In many cases, these laws apply not only to third-party transactions, but also to transfers of information between or among us and our subsidiaries. Data protection, privacy, and information security have become the subject of increasing public, media, and legislative concern. If our customers were to reduce their use of our products and services as a result of these concerns, our business could be materially harmed. Any failure, or perceived failure, by us or our partners and others who use our services to comply with our privacy policies or with any applicable privacy laws in one or more jurisdictions could result in proceedings or actions against us by governmental entities or private parties. Those proceedings or actions could involve significant fines, penalties, judgments, and reputational damage to us. They may also require us to change our business practices and otherwise increase the costs and complexity of compliance.

We are subject to complex and evolving laws, regulations, and industry requirements related to data privacy, data protection, and information security across different markets where we conduct our business, including in the United States, United Kingdom, and EEA. Such laws, regulations, and industry requirements are constantly evolving and changing. Our or our third-party providers’ or partners’ actual or perceived failure to comply with such laws, regulations, and industry requirements or our privacy policies/notices could result in enforcement actions, litigation, fines, and reputational harm.

Various local, state, federal, and foreign laws, directives, and regulations apply to our collection, use, retention, protection, disclosure, transfer, and any other processing of personal data. There is uncertainty and inconsistency in how these data protection and privacy laws and regulations are interpreted and applied, and they continue to evolve in ways that could adversely impact our business. These laws have a substantial impact on our operations both outside and in the United States, directly as a data controller/business and as a data processor/service provider and handler for various offshore entities.

Laws, regulations, and standards covering marketing, advertising, and other activities conducted by telephone, email, mobile devices, and the internet may be or become applicable to our business, such as the Federal Communications Act, the Federal Wiretap Act, the Electronic Communications Privacy Act, the Controlling the Assault of Non-Solicited Pornography and Marketing Act of 2003 (the “CAN-SPAM Act”), and similar state consumer protection and communication privacy laws, such as the California Invasion of Privacy Act. We may make telephone calls and send short message service (“SMS”) text messages to customers. The actual or perceived improper calling of customer phones or sending of text messages may subject us to potential risks. Federal or state regulatory authorities, regulatory authorities in foreign jurisdictions, or private litigants may claim that the notices and disclosures we provide, forms of consent we obtain, or our calling or SMS texting practices are not adequate or violate applicable law. This may in the future result in civil claims against us. We also send marketing messages via email and are subject to the CAN-SPAM Act. The CAN-SPAM Act imposes certain obligations regarding the content of commercial emails and providing recipients a mechanism to opt out of receiving such emails (with the corresponding requirement to honor such opt-out requests promptly). While we strive to ensure that all of our marketing communications comply with the requirements of the CAN-SPAM Act, we could nonetheless commit violations that could result in civil or criminal penalties. In addition, the scope and interpretation of the laws that are or may be applicable to the delivery of text messages or email marketing are continuously evolving and developing. If we do not comply with these laws or regulations, we could face direct liability, could be required to change some portions of our marketing strategy, or could face negative publicity, and our business, results of operations, financial condition, and prospects could be adversely affected. Even an unsuccessful challenge of our calling or SMS texting practices by our customers, regulatory authorities, or other third parties could result in negative publicity and could require a costly response from and defense by us.

In the United States, federal and state lawmakers and regulatory authorities have increased their attention to the collection and use of consumer data. For example, certain states in the United States have enacted stringent privacy and data protection legislation and regulations, such as the California Consumer Privacy Act (the “CCPA”), which gives California residents the right to access and request deletion of their personal data, opt out of the sale of personal data, and receive detailed information about how their personal data is processed, and provides a private right of action for certain data breaches involving the loss of personal data. The California Privacy Rights Act modified the CCPA by expanding consumers’ rights with respect to certain personal data and creating a new state agency to oversee implementation and enforcement efforts. Another example is the Virginia Consumer Data Protection Act, which regulates how businesses collect and share personal information. With bills proposed in many other jurisdictions, it remains quite possible that other states will enact similar privacy and data protection legislation. Such proposed legislation, if enacted, may add additional complexity, conflicting requirements, additional restrictions, and potential legal risk. The existence of comprehensive privacy laws in different states will make our compliance obligations more complex and costly and may increase the likelihood that we may be subject to enforcement actions or otherwise incur liability for noncompliance.

As a result of our presence in Europe and some of our customers being located in the European Union and the United Kingdom, we are subject to the EU’s General Data Protection Regulation (“GDPR”) and the UK General Data Protection Regulation (the “UK GDPR”). These regimes impose stringent data protection requirements and may increase both the risk of noncompliance and the costs of providing our products and services in a compliant manner. These regimes grant rights for data subjects in regard to their personal data (including the right to be “forgotten” and the right to data portability) and enhance preexisting rights (e.g., data subject access requests). A breach of the GDPR or UK GDPR could result in regulatory investigations, reputational damage, fines and sanctions, orders to cease or change our processing of our data, enforcement notices, assessment notices (for a compulsory audit), and civil claims, including representative actions and other class action-type litigation. Further, Post-Brexit, the UK GDPR will not automatically incorporate changes made to the GDPR going forward, which creates a risk that the GDPR and the UK GDPR may increasingly diverge from each other, thereby increasing both our compliance costs and the potential for noncompliance.

In addition, the GDPR imposes strict rules on the transfer of personal data out of the EEA to a “third country”, including the United States. The same is true for the UK GDPR. These obligations may be interpreted and applied in a manner that is inconsistent from one jurisdiction to another and may conflict with other requirements or our practices. On July 11, 2023, the European Commission entered into force its adequacy decision for the EU-U.S. Data Privacy Framework (the “EU-U.S. DPF”) (a new framework for transferring personal information from the EEA to the United States), having determined that such framework ensures that the protection of personal information transferred from the EEA to the United States will be comparable to the protection offered in the EU. However, this decision will likely face legal challenges and ultimately may be invalidated by the Court of Justice of the European Union just as the EU-U.S. Privacy Shield Framework was. Additionally, on October 12, 2023, a UK-U.S. Data Bridge went into effect to operate as an extension of the EU-U.S. DPF to facilitate transfers of personal data from the United Kingdom to the United States. Such Data Bridge could not only be challenged, but also may be affected by any challenges to the EU-U.S. DPF. Complying with these obligations and applicable guidance regarding cross-border data transfers could be expensive and time-consuming. It may require us to modify our data handling policies and procedures, update and implement revised standard contractual clauses and other relevant documentation and measures for intragroup, customer, and vendor arrangements requiring transfers of personal information, and may ultimately prevent or restrict us from transferring personal data outside Europe or the United Kingdom, which could cause significant business disruption and affect the manner in which we provide our services and the geographical location or segregation of our relevant systems and operations.

We are also subject to evolving EU privacy laws on cookies and e-marketing. In the EU, regulators are increasingly focusing on compliance with requirements in the online behavioral advertising ecosystem, and EU national laws that implement the ePrivacy Directive (Directive 2002/58/EC concerning the processing of personal data and the protection of privacy in the electronic communications sector) may be replaced by an EU regulation known as the ePrivacy Regulation, which may alter rules on tracking technologies, impose burdensome requirements surrounding obtaining consent, and significantly increase fines for noncompliance. In the EU, informed consent—including a prohibition on pre-checked consents and a requirement to ensure separate consents for each cookie—is required for the placement of a cookie or similar technologies on a user’s device and for direct electronic marketing (and under the GDPR and the UK GDPR). Valid consent is tightly defined, including a prohibition on pre-checked consents for each type of cookie or similar technology. While the text of the ePrivacy Regulation is still under development, enforcement of the ePrivacy Regulation could lead to substantial costs, require significant systems changes, limit the effectiveness of our marketing activities, divert the attention of our technology personnel, negatively impact our efforts to understand customers, adversely affect our margins, increase costs, and subject us to additional liabilities.

As these and other laws and regulations continue to evolve and be enacted, or new interpretations of existing laws and regulations are applied, we may need to modify our data processing practices, agreements, and policies, which could incur substantial costs. Restrictions on the collection, use, sharing, or disclosure of personal information or additional requirements and liability for security and data integrity could require us to modify our solutions and features, possibly in a material manner. Such restrictions could also limit our ability to develop new services and features, and could subject us to increased compliance obligations and regulatory scrutiny. We use a variety of technical and organizational security measures and other measures to protect the data we process, including personal data pertaining to our customers, employees, and business partners. Despite the measures we put in place, we may be unable to anticipate or prevent unauthorized access to such personal data.

Moreover, while we strive to publish and prominently display privacy policies that are accurate, comprehensive, and compliant with applicable laws, rules, regulations, and industry standards, we cannot ensure that our privacy policies and other statements regarding our practices will be sufficient to protect us from claims, proceedings, liability, or adverse publicity. Although we endeavor to comply with our privacy policies, we may at times fail to do so or be alleged to have failed to do so. If our public statements about our use, collection, disclosure, and other processing of personal information—whether made through our privacy policies, information provided on our website, press statements, or otherwise—are alleged to be deceptive, unfair, or misrepresentative of our actual practices, we may be subject to potential government investigations and enforcement actions, including by the FTC or relevant state attorneys general.

Despite our efforts to comply with applicable laws, regulations, and other obligations relating to privacy, data protection, and information security, it is possible that our practices or technology could fail, or be alleged to fail to meet applicable requirements. For instance, the overall regulatory framework governing the application of privacy laws to blockchain technology is still undeveloped and likely to evolve. Data protection authorities may adopt different views than we do with respect to the classification and protection of data associated with blockchain technology under applicable privacy laws. Despite our efforts to choose vendors that meet applicable laws, regulations, and other obligations relating to privacy, data protection, and information security and that maintain robust security controls, it is possible that a vendor could fail to comply or experience a data breach impacting our data and our business. Our failure, or the failure by our third-party providers or partners, to comply with applicable laws or regulations could damage our reputation or result in fines or proceedings by governmental agencies as well as private litigation.

Risks related to intellectual property

Our intellectual property rights are valuable. Any inability to protect and enforce such intellectual property rights could adversely impact our business, results of operations, financial condition, and prospects.

Our business depends in part on our ability to seek, obtain, and maintain intellectual property protection, including with respect to our proprietary technology and our brand. We rely on, and expect to continue to rely on, a combination of trademark, trade dress, domain name, copyright, patent, and trade secret laws in the United States and similar laws in other countries, as well as confidentiality and license agreements with our employees, contractors, consultants, and third parties with whom we have relationships, to establish, maintain, and protect our brand and other intellectual property rights. Our efforts to establish, maintain, protect, and enforce our intellectual property rights may not be sufficient or effective. Our intellectual property rights, including rights in our proprietary technology and trade secrets, could be lost through misappropriation or breach of our confidentiality and license agreements. Moreover, any of our intellectual property rights may be circumvented, infringed, diluted, disclosed, misappropriated, or challenged, which could result in them being narrowed in scope or declared invalid or unenforceable. There can be no assurance that our intellectual property rights will be sufficient to protect against others offering products, services, or technologies that are substantially similar to ours and that compete with our business.

Furthermore, there can be no assurance that our patent applications will be approved, any patents issued will be of sufficient scope or strength to provide us with meaningful protection, or such patents will not be challenged by third parties. We may also fail to accurately predict all of the countries where patent protection will ultimately be desirable, and if we fail to timely file a patent application in any such country, we may be precluded from doing so at a later date. The patents issued may vary in scope of coverage depending on the country in which such patents issue.

As we have grown, we have sought to obtain and protect our intellectual property rights in an increasing number of countries, a process that can be expensive and may not always be successful. For example, the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office and various foreign governmental intellectual property agencies require compliance with a number of procedural requirements to complete the trademark application process and to maintain issued trademarks. Noncompliance with these procedural requirements or nonpayment could result in abandonment or lapse of a trademark or trademark application, resulting in partial or complete loss of trademark rights in a relevant jurisdiction. In addition, a failure by us to sufficiently exploit any of our trademarks in any markets could erode our trademark rights with respect to the relevant trademarks.

Further, intellectual property protection may not be available to us in every country in which our products and services are available, and the laws of certain countries do not protect proprietary rights to the same degree as the laws of the United States. Therefore, in certain jurisdictions, we may be unable to protect our intellectual property adequately against unauthorized third-party copying, infringement, or use, which could adversely affect our competitive position. We may also agree to license our intellectual property to third parties as part of various agreements. Those licenses may diminish our ability to counter-assert our intellectual property rights against certain parties that may bring claims against us.

Finally, some of our business and some of our products rely or may in the future rely on key technologies developed or licensed by third parties. Because of the rapid pace of technological change in the information technology industry, we may not be able to obtain or continue to obtain licenses and technologies from relevant third parties on reasonable terms, or at all.

Our Collaboration Agreement with Coinbase could cause us to lose ownership or use of our trademarks upon the occurrence of certain events.

Our Collaboration Agreement and Intellectual Property License Agreement with Coinbase contain provisions requiring the assignment of certain of our intellectual property rights to Coinbase upon the occurrence of certain events. Specifically, if (i) we determine in good faith that the payment provisions under the Collaboration Agreement with respect to USDC or other applicable Circle stablecoin (such stablecoin, an “applicable stablecoin”) would violate an applicable law or government order, (ii) an order from a court of competent jurisdiction prohibits us from continuing to satisfy our payment obligations to Coinbase under the Collaboration Agreement with respect to an applicable stablecoin and, in either case of (i) or (ii), such violation of applicable law or order cannot be remediated with a mutually agreeable amendment or by the parties restructuring their operations with respect to an applicable stablecoin within a certain period of time (the “restructuring period”), or (iii) we have not resumed our payment obligations under the Collaboration Agreement with respect to an applicable stablecoin following the restructuring period, upon Coinbase’s written request, we would be required to assign to Coinbase the trademarks relating to such applicable stablecoin that are subject to the Intellectual Property License Agreement. Upon such assignment, we and Coinbase would enter into a new license agreement (the “Flipped Trademark License Agreement”) pursuant to which Coinbase would grant us a worldwide, non-exclusive, non-transferable, non-sublicensable (other than to certain software and service providers) right to use such trademark, in connection with the advertising, promotion, marketing, commercialization, issuance, sale, distribution, development, provision, and receipt of such stablecoin. For its part, Coinbase would be able to use and license the trademarks of such stablecoin for use by third parties so long as neither Coinbase nor any third party uses the trademarks in a manner that suggests that such party is the issuer of such stablecoin. If our trademarks are assigned to Coinbase, we will have no control over how such trademarks and trade names may be used by Coinbase and any third-party licensees. Any misuse or inconsistent use of such trademarks and trade names may cause consumer confusion and jeopardize the value of our brand and products. Furthermore, if we fail to make any royalty payments due to Coinbase under the Flipped Trademark License Agreement, Coinbase may terminate the agreement and/or the licenses granted therein. As it relates to USDC (or any other stablecoin that we issue under the Collaboration Agreement), failure to be able to use the relevant trademarks could have a significant and detrimental effect on our ability to operate as the issuer of USDC or other stablecoin. Any forced assignment of or other loss of rights to use our trademarks under the terms of the Collaboration Agreement could have a material adverse effect on our business, results of operations, financial condition, and prospects.

Our and our partners’ products and services, including the blockchains on which the Circle stablecoins protocols are built, contain third-party open-source software components. Failure to comply with the terms of the underlying open-source software licenses could harm our business.

Our products and services contain software modules licensed to us by third-party authors under “open-source” licenses. Also, the blockchains on which Circle stablecoins protocols are built and the other partners in the Circle ecosystem materially rely on open-source licenses to operate. We also make certain of our own software available to customers for free under various open-source licenses. Use and distribution of open-source software may entail greater risks than use of third-party commercial software, as open-source licensors generally do not provide support, warranties, indemnification, or other contractual protections regarding infringement claims or the quality of the code. In addition, the public availability of such software may make it easier for others to compromise our products and services.

Some open-source licenses contain requirements that we make available source code for modifications or derivative works we create based upon the type of open-source software we use, or grant other licenses to our intellectual property. If we combine our proprietary software with open-source software in a certain manner, we could, under certain open-source licenses, be required to release the source code of our proprietary software to the public. This would allow our competitors to create similar offerings with lower development effort and time and ultimately could result in a loss of our competitive advantages. Alternatively, to avoid the public release of the affected portions of our source code, we could be required to expend substantial time and resources to reengineer some or all of our software.

Although we monitor our use of open-source software to avoid subjecting our products and services to conditions we do not intend, we have not recently conducted an extensive audit of our use of open-source software and, as a result, there can be no assurance that our processes for controlling our use of open-source software in our products and services are, or will be, effective. If we are held to have breached or failed to fully comply with all the terms and conditions of an open-source software license, we could face litigation, infringement, or other liability. We may also be required to seek costly licenses from third parties to continue providing our offerings on terms that are not economically feasible, to reengineer our products or services, to discontinue or delay the provision of our offerings if reengineering could not be accomplished on a timely basis, or to make generally available, in source code form, our proprietary code.

Moreover, the terms of many open-source licenses have not been interpreted by U.S. or foreign courts. As a result, there is a risk that these licenses could be construed in a way that could impose unanticipated conditions or restrictions on our ability to provide or distribute our products and services. From time to time, there have been claims challenging the ownership of open-source software against companies that incorporate open-source software into their solutions. As a result, we could be subject to lawsuits by parties claiming ownership of what we believe to be open-source software.

We may be sued by third parties for alleged infringement of their proprietary rights.

In recent years, there has been considerable patent, copyright, trademark, domain name, trade secret, and other intellectual property development activity in the digital assets ecosystem, as well as litigation, based on allegations of infringement, misappropriation, or other violations of intellectual property brought by companies of all sizes and industries. Furthermore, anyone can purchase patents and other intellectual property assets for the purpose of making claims of infringement to extract settlements from companies like ours. We also may be subject to claims of infringement, misappropriation, or other violations of intellectual property.

We cannot guarantee that our internally developed or acquired technologies and content do not or will not infringe the intellectual property rights of others. From time to time, our competitors or other third parties may claim that we, our customers, or other parties indemnified by us are infringing upon or misappropriating their intellectual property rights, and we, our customers, or other parties indemnified by us may be found to be infringing upon such rights. We expect that the occurrence of infringement claims is likely to grow as the digital asset market grows and matures. Any claims or litigation, regardless of merit, could cause us to incur significant expenses and, if successfully asserted against us, could require that we enter into costly settlement or license agreements or pay substantial damages or ongoing royalty payments, prevent us from offering our products or services or using certain technologies, force us to implement expensive workarounds, or impose other unfavorable terms. Even if intellectual property claims do not result in litigation or are resolved in our favor, these claims, and the time and resources necessary to resolve them, could divert the resources of our management and require significant expenditures.

Risks related to our employees and other service providers

We are dependent on certain key personnel and may be unable to attract and retain qualified and skilled employees.

We operate in a relatively new industry that is not widely understood and requires highly skilled and technical personnel. We believe that our future success is highly dependent on the talents and contributions of our senior management team, including Jeremy Allaire, our co-founder, Chairman, and Chief Executive Officer, members of our executive leadership team, and other key employees across our business. We must be able to attract, develop, motivate, and retain highly qualified and skilled employees. Due to the nascent nature of the digital assets ecosystem, the pool of qualified talent is limited, particularly with respect to executive talent with engineering, risk management, and financial regulatory expertise. We face intense competition for qualified individuals from numerous software and other technology companies. To attract and retain key personnel, we incur significant costs, including salaries and benefits and equity incentives. Even so, these measures may not be enough to attract and retain the personnel we require to operate our business effectively. The loss of even a few qualified employees—or an inability to attract, retain, and motivate additional highly skilled employees required for the planned expansion of our business—could adversely impact our operations and impair our ability to grow.

Our culture emphasizes innovation, and if we cannot maintain this culture as we grow as a public company, our business and operating results could be adversely impacted.

We believe that our entrepreneurial and innovative corporate culture has been a key contributor to our success. We encourage and empower our employees to develop and launch new and innovative products and services, which we believe is essential to attracting high-quality talent, partners, and developers, as well as serving the best, long-term interests of our company. If we cannot maintain this culture as we grow as a public company, we could lose the innovation, creativity, and teamwork that have been integral to our business.

Our officers, directors, employees, and large shareholders may have conflicts of interest with respect to their positions or interests in certain entities and other initiatives.

We frequently engage with a wide variety of blockchain and digital asset industry participants, as well as startups and growth companies, and maintain relationships with a significant number of digital asset projects, developers, and investors. These transactions and relationships could create potential conflicts of interest in management decisions that we make. For instance, certain of our officers, directors, and employees are active investors in digital asset projects and other growth companies themselves, and may make investment decisions that favor projects in which they have personally invested. Many of our large shareholders also make investments in these projects.

Risks related to our Class A common stock

Insiders continue to have substantial control over us and could limit your ability to influence the outcome of key transactions, including a change of control.

We have three authorized series of common stock: Class A common stock, which is entitled to one vote per share; Class B common stock, which is entitled to 5 votes per share (but the aggregate voting power of Class B common stock cannot exceed 30% of the total voting power of our capital stock); and Class C common stock, which does not have any voting power other than to the extent set forth in our certificate of incorporation or otherwise required by applicable law. Holders of our common stock vote together as a single class on all matters, except as otherwise set forth in our certificate of incorporation or as required by applicable law. As of December 31, 2025, our co-founders and entities affiliated with them held stock with approximately 29.6% voting power over us. As a result, these stockholders, if acting together, would be able to significantly influence matters requiring approval by our stockholders, including the election of directors and the approval of mergers or other extraordinary transactions. They may also have interests that differ from yours and may vote in a way with which you disagree and which may be adverse to your interests. The concentration of voting power may have the effect of delaying, preventing, or deterring a change of control of our company, could deprive our stockholders of an opportunity to receive a premium for their Class A common stock as part of a sale of our company, and might ultimately affect the market price of our Class A common stock.

We face increased costs and devote substantial management time as a newly listed U.S. company.

We incur significant legal, accounting, and other expenses as a newly listed U.S. company. For example, we are subject to the reporting requirements of the Exchange Act and have to comply with the applicable requirements of the Sarbanes-Oxley Act, as well as SEC rules and regulations and NYSE listing standards, including the establishment and maintenance of effective disclosure and financial controls, changes in corporate governance practices, and required filing of annual, quarterly, and current reports with respect to our business and results of operations. Compliance with these requirements has increased our legal and financial compliance costs and made some activities more time-consuming and costly. In addition, our management and other personnel have devoted, and will continue to devote, substantial time to these public company requirements, diverting attention from operational and other business matters. This could also make it more difficult for us to attract and retain qualified people to serve on our board of directors, on our board committees, or as executive officers.

We may not be able to maintain an active, liquid trading market for our Class A common stock.

Our Class A common stock has been trading on the NYSE for a limited period of time, and there can be no assurance that an active, liquid trading market will be maintained over the long-term. We cannot predict whether and to what extent investor interest in our company may shift, which could impact our trading market on the NYSE and our liquidity. If an active trading market is not maintained, you may have difficulty selling any of our Class A common stock that you purchase.

The multiple series structure of our common stock may depress the trading price and liquidity of our Class A common stock.

The multiple series structure of our common stock may result in a lower or more volatile market price of our Class A common stock or other adverse consequences. For example, certain index providers restrict inclusion of companies with multiple class share structures in certain of their indexes. In addition, certain proxy advisory firms oppose the use of dual or multiple class structures. As a result, the multiple series structure of our common stock may prevent the inclusion of our Class A common stock in certain indices and may cause proxy advisory firms to publish negative commentary about our corporate governance practices or otherwise seek to cause us to change our capital structure, which could result in a less active trading market for our Class A common stock and adversely affect the value of our Class A common stock. In addition, the difference in the voting rights of the various series of our common stock could harm the value of our Class A common stock to the extent that any investor or potential future purchaser of our Class A common stock ascribes value to the superior voting power of our Class B common stock.

The market price of our Class A common stock may fluctuate significantly.

The trading price of our Class A common stock may be volatile and subject to wide price fluctuations in response to various factors, including:

•market conditions in the broader stock market in general, or in our industry in particular;

•actual or anticipated fluctuations in our quarterly financial and operating results;

•introduction of new products and services by us or our competitors;

•issuance of new or changed securities analysts’ reports or recommendations;

•sales of large blocks of our stock;

•rapid, short-term trades by hedge or day-trading investors;

•additions or departures of key personnel;

•regulatory developments;

•litigation and governmental investigations;

•economic and political conditions or events; and

•the other factors described in this “Risk factors” section.

These and other factors may cause the market price and demand for our Class A common stock to fluctuate substantially, which may limit or prevent investors from readily selling their shares of Class A common stock and may otherwise negatively affect the liquidity of our Class A common stock. Moreover, our stock may be attractive to hedge or day-trading investors who often shift funds into and out of stocks rapidly, exacerbating price fluctuations in either direction. In addition, the stock market in general, and the market prices for digital asset companies in particular, have experienced significant volatility, including both price and volume fluctuations, that often has been unrelated or disproportionate to the operating performance of such companies. In particular, trading prices of our Class A common stock since our listing on the NYSE may reflect market dynamics that are not connected to traditional valuation methods that might otherwise be associated with an operating company with a business model such as ours. Our equity market capitalization as of December 31, 2025 is well in excess of our stockholders’ equity calculated in accordance with U.S. GAAP. Investors may therefore be unable to assess the value of our Class A common stock or evaluate the risks of an investment in us using traditional or commonly used enterprise valuation methods. We cannot predict how these dynamics may evolve over time, or whether or how long they may last. These broad market and industry fluctuations may adversely affect the price of our Class A common stock, regardless of our operating performance.

In addition, in the past, when the market price of a stock has been volatile, holders of that stock have instituted securities class action litigation against the company that issued the stock. If any of our stockholders brought a lawsuit against us, we could incur substantial costs defending the lawsuit. Such a lawsuit could also divert the time and attention of our management from our business.

If securities or industry analysts do not regularly publish research or reports about our business, or if they drop coverage of us, or if they issue adverse or misleading opinions regarding our stock, our stock price and trading volume could decline.

The trading market for our Class A common stock may be influenced by the research and reports that industry or securities analysts publish about us or our business. If securities or industry analysts drop coverage of us or fail to publish reports on us regularly, we could lose visibility in the financial markets, which in turn could cause our stock price or trading volume to decline. Moreover, if one or more of the analysts who cover us downgrade our stock, or if our results of operations do not meet their expectations, our stock price could decline.

Some provisions of Delaware law and our certificate of incorporation and bylaws may deter third parties from acquiring us.

Our certificate of incorporation and bylaws provide for, among other things:

•three series of common stock with disparate voting power;

•a staggered board and restrictions on the ability of our stockholders to fill a vacancy on the board of directors;

•the authorization of undesignated preferred stock, the terms of which may be established and shares of which may be issued without stockholder approval;

•a prohibition on stockholder action by written consent, thereby requiring all actions to be taken at a duly called meeting of the stockholders;

•supermajority approval to amend our bylaws and certain provisions of our certificate of incorporation; and

•advance notice requirements for stockholder proposals.

Moreover, because we are incorporated in Delaware, we are governed by Section 203 of the Delaware General Corporation Law, which prohibits a person who owns in excess of 15% of our outstanding voting stock from merging or combining with us for a period of three years after the date of the transaction in which the person acquired in excess of 15% of our outstanding voting stock, unless the merger or combination is approved in a prescribed manner.

These anti-takeover defenses could discourage, delay, or prevent a transaction involving a change in control of our company and may discourage bids for our Class A common stock at a premium over its market price. These provisions could also discourage proxy contests and make it more difficult for you and other stockholders to elect directors of your choosing and cause us to take other corporate actions than you desire.

Our bylaws provide that the Court of Chancery of the State of Delaware and the federal district court for the District of Delaware are the exclusive forums for substantially all disputes between us and our stockholders.

Our bylaws provide that, unless we consent in writing to the selection of an alternative forum, to the fullest extent permitted by law, the Court of Chancery of the State of Delaware (or, if the Court of Chancery of the State of Delaware does not have jurisdiction, the federal district court for the District of Delaware) is the sole and exclusive forum for (i) any derivative action or proceeding brought on our behalf, (ii) any action asserting a claim of breach of a fiduciary duty owed by any current or former director, officer, other employee, or stockholder to us or our stockholders, (iii) any action asserting a claim arising pursuant to any provision of Delaware General Corporation Law, our certificate of incorporation or our bylaws or as to which Delaware General Corporation Law confers jurisdiction on the Court of Chancery of the State of Delaware or (iv) any action asserting a claim governed by the internal affairs doctrine of the law of the State of Delaware; provided that the foregoing provision does not apply to claims brought to enforce a duty or liability created by the Securities Act or the Exchange Act or any claim for which the U.S. federal courts have exclusive jurisdiction. In addition, our bylaws provide that, unless we consent in writing to the selection of an alternative forum, to the fullest extent permitted by law, the federal district court for the District of Delaware is the sole and exclusive forum for any action asserting a cause of action arising under the Securities Act or the Exchange Act. Any person or entity holding, purchasing or otherwise acquiring any interest in shares of our capital stock are deemed to have notice of and to have consented to these forum selection provisions.

These forum selection provisions may impose additional litigation costs on stockholders in pursuing any such claims, particularly if the stockholders do not reside in or near the State of Delaware and limit a stockholder’s ability to bring a claim in a judicial forum that it finds favorable for disputes with us or our directors, officers, or other employees, which may discourage lawsuits against us and our directors, officers, and other employees, although our stockholders will not be deemed to have waived our compliance with federal securities laws and the rules and regulations thereunder.

While Delaware courts have determined that forum selection provisions are facially valid, it is possible that a court of law in another jurisdiction could rule that the forum selection provisions contained in our bylaws are inapplicable or unenforceable if they are challenged in a proceeding or otherwise. If a court were to find the forum selection provision in our bylaws to be inapplicable or unenforceable in an action, we may incur additional costs associated with resolving such action in other jurisdictions.

We do not anticipate paying any cash dividends in the foreseeable future.

We intend to retain all available funds and any future earnings, if any, to fund the development and expansion of our business, and we do not anticipate paying any cash dividends in the foreseeable future. As a result, capital appreciation in the price of our Class A common stock, if any, will be your only source of gain on an investment in our Class A common stock.

General risk factors

Adverse economic conditions and geopolitical events may adversely affect our business.

Our performance is subject to general economic conditions and their impact on blockchain technology adoption, digital assets, and payments, as well as our customers. The United States and other key international economies have experienced cyclical downturns from time to time in which economic activity declined resulting in lower consumption rates, restricted credit, reduced profitability, weaknesses in financial markets, bankruptcies, and overall uncertainty with respect to the economy. The impact of general economic conditions on the digital assets ecosystem is highly uncertain and dependent on a variety of factors, including market adoption of stablecoins and other digital assets, global trends in the blockchain economy, central bank monetary policies, and other events beyond our control.

Economic uncertainty or instability caused by political and geopolitical developments can negatively impact our business.

Political developments in the U.S. and other countries can cause uncertainty in the economic environment and market conditions in which we operate. Certain governmental policy initiatives, as well as heightened geopolitical tensions, could significantly affect U.S. and global economic growth and cause higher volatility in the financial markets, including: monetary policies and actions taken by the federal reserve and other central banks or governmental authorities; fiscal policies, including with respect to taxation and spending; foreign policies; economic or financial sanctions; the implementation of tariffs and other protectionist trade policies; and changes to immigration policies.

These types of political developments, and uncertainty about the possible outcomes of these developments, could: erode investor or consumer confidence in the U.S. economy and financial markets, which could potentially undermine the status of the U.S. dollar as a safe haven currency and cause stock price volatility; provoke retaliatory countermeasures by other countries and otherwise heighten tensions in regulatory, enforcement or diplomatic relations; increase the risk of targeted cyber attacks; increase concerns about whether the U.S. government will be funded, and its outstanding debt serviced, at any particular time; result in periodic shutdowns of the U.S. Government; influence monetary policy actions of the federal reserve to moderate the economic impact of political developments; cause us to refrain from engaging in business opportunities that it might otherwise pursue; or cause us to have fewer business opportunities if governments or partners are unwilling to engage with us due to geopolitical tensions or adverse perceptions of U.S. businesses.

These factors could lead to slower growth rates, rising inflation, or recession. They may also lead to greater market volatility and U.S. dollar currency fluctuations, and may cause us to reduce partnerships in or abandon opportunities in a particular country.

These potential outcomes could be significant and could adversely affect our stock price or our business, results of operations, financial condition, or prospects.

We may be adversely affected by natural disasters, pandemics, and other catastrophic events, as well as by man-made problems such as terrorism.

Natural disasters, fire, power shortages, or other catastrophic events may cause damage or disruption to our operations, international commerce, and the global economy, and could have an adverse effect on our business, results of operations, financial condition, and prospects. In addition, our global operations expose us to risks associated with public health crises, such as pandemics and epidemics, which could harm our business and cause our operating results to suffer. Further, acts of terrorism, labor activism or unrest, and other geopolitical unrest could cause disruptions in our business or the businesses of our partners or the economy as a whole. In the event of a natural disaster, we may be unable to continue our operations and may endure system interruptions, reputational harm, delays in development of our products and services, lengthy interruptions in service, breaches of data security, and loss of critical data, all of which could have an adverse effect on our operating results.

We do not maintain insurance sufficient to compensate us for the potentially significant losses that could result from disruptions to our products and services. Additionally, all of the aforementioned risks may be further increased if we do not implement a disaster recovery plan or our business partners’ disaster recovery plans prove to be inadequate. To the extent natural disasters or other catastrophic events concurrently impact data centers we rely on in connection with private key restoration, customers will experience significant delays in withdrawing funds, or in the extreme, we may suffer losses of our customer funds.

We have in the past and may in the future acquire other businesses, which could require significant management attention, disrupt our business, dilute shareholder value, and adversely affect our results of operations.

Acquisitions, partnerships, and joint ventures have been part of our growth strategy. We expect to continue to evaluate potential strategic acquisitions of, and partnerships or joint ventures with, complementary businesses, services, or technologies. We may not be able to find suitable acquisition candidates, and we may not be able to complete such acquisitions on favorable terms, if at all. In addition, the pursuit of potential acquisitions may divert the attention of management and cause us to incur additional expenses in identifying, investigating, and pursuing suitable acquisitions, whether or not they are consummated. If we do complete acquisitions, we may not achieve our intended outcomes, for example, due to technical difficulties migrating the acquired products into our ecosystem. Moreover, the companies we acquire may have different risk tolerances than ours, which could result in decisions that do not enhance our competitive position or achieve our strategic goals. Acquisitions may also require regulatory approvals that are costly or time-consuming to obtain, and any difficulties or delays in complying with such regulatory requirements would hinder our strategic objectives. We may also lose certain pre-existing business relationships as a result of new acquisitions, given the highly competitive nature of the digital asset industry. Furthermore, any acquisitions we complete could be viewed

negatively by our customers, shareholders, and the market. We may not be aware of all of the risks associated with the acquired business.

In addition, an acquisition may result in unforeseen operating difficulties and expenditures, such as the following:

•difficulties integrating businesses, services, personnel, operations, and financial and other controls and systems and retaining key employees;

•assumption of unknown liabilities, known contingent liabilities that become realized, or known liabilities that prove greater than anticipated;

•difficulties retaining the customers or employees of any acquired business;

•incurrence of debt, contingent liabilities, or future write-offs of intangible assets or goodwill;

•entry into a new market or business line in which we have no prior experience and in which we may not successfully compete; and

•integration of an acquired company, which may disrupt ongoing operations and require management resources that would otherwise be used in developing our existing business.

Foreign acquisitions involve unique risks in addition to those mentioned above, including those related to integration of operations across different cultures and languages, currency risks, and the particular economic, political, and regulatory risks associated with specific countries. Any such acquisitions may reduce cash available for operations and other uses and could result in amortization expense related to identifiable assets acquired. We may have to pay cash, incur debt, or issue equity securities to pay for any such acquisition.

Item 1B. Unresolved Staff Comments

None.

Item 1C. Cybersecurity

Risk Management and Strategy

Cybersecurity is an integral part of our enterprise risk management framework. As a global technology and financial services company operating internet and blockchain-native platforms, we face evolving cybersecurity threats that could impact the confidentiality, integrity, and availability of our systems and data. We have implemented a comprehensive information security program designed to identify, assess, and manage cybersecurity risks, protect critical systems and customer information, detect and respond to cybersecurity incidents, and support timely recovery. Our cybersecurity program is informed by the National Institute of Standards and Technology (“NIST”) Cybersecurity Framework and is designed to adapt to changes in our business, technology environment, and threat landscape.

Our cybersecurity risk management processes include enterprise-wide risk assessments, threat intelligence, vulnerability management, third-party risk management, and business continuity and disaster recovery planning. We maintain policies, standards, and procedures addressing areas such as access controls, data protection, incident response, system monitoring, and vendor security. We also conduct ongoing employee training and awareness programs and perform regular testing of our controls through internal reviews, independent audits, and third-party assessments. Cybersecurity incidents are evaluated based on severity and potential impact, escalated as appropriate, and addressed through established incident response and remediation processes.

Governance Framework

Governance and oversight of cybersecurity risk are provided at both the management and board levels. Our cybersecurity program is led by our Chief Security Officer (“CSO”), who is supported by a dedicated cybersecurity organization and works closely with our risk management, compliance, and legal teams. Management-level risk committees regularly review cybersecurity risks, incidents, and program enhancements, and material cybersecurity matters are reported to executive management and the Board of Directors, including through the Board’s Audit and Risk Committees.

To date, we have not experienced a cybersecurity incident that has materially affected, or is reasonably likely to materially affect, our business strategy, results of operations, or financial condition. However, we recognize that cybersecurity threats are pervasive and continue to invest in and enhance our cybersecurity capabilities to mitigate these risks.

While all of our employees play a part in information security, cybersecurity, and data privacy, oversight responsibility is shared by the Board, its committees, and management, as further highlighted below.


Responsible Party			Oversight Area for Cybersecurity and Privacy Matters
Board of Directors			Provides ultimate oversight of cybersecurity risk as part of enterprise risk management; receives regular updates on cybersecurity risks, incidents, and program effectiveness; oversees management’s approach to identifying, assessing, and mitigating cybersecurity risks aligned with the NIST Cybersecurity Framework.
Audit Committee			Oversees cybersecurity risks related to financial reporting, internal controls, and audit processes; receives updates on cybersecurity controls, monitoring, and testing, including findings from internal audit, external audits, and third-party assessments; reviews cybersecurity matters that could impact financial reporting or disclosure obligations.
Risk Committee			Oversees cybersecurity as a component of the enterprise risk management framework; monitors cybersecurity risk exposure, risk appetite, and mitigation strategies; reviews emerging threats, significant incidents, and management’s remediation efforts through regular reporting from management and internal risk committees.
Disclosure Committee			Oversees the identification and escalation of cybersecurity risks and incidents that may be relevant to public disclosures; evaluates, in coordination with management, whether cybersecurity matters require disclosure in periodic reports or other filings; helps ensure cybersecurity disclosures are accurate, consistent, and timely.
Management (including CSO)			Responsible for day-to-day operation of the cybersecurity program; establishes and maintains policies, standards, and procedures aligned with NIST; conducts risk assessments, threat intelligence, and third-party risk management; oversees incident detection, response, and recovery; reports cybersecurity risks, incidents, and program enhancements to senior management, the Board, and its committees through established governance and escalation processes.

Item 2. Properties

The Company's principal executive office is located at One World Trade Center, 87th Floor, New York, New York, 10007.

We lease office space in other countries around the world to support the Company's global operations. These properties are well-maintained, suitable for their intended uses and adequate to support operations as of December 31, 2025.

Item 3. Legal Proceedings

From time to time, we may be subject to various legal proceedings and claims that arise in the ordinary course of our business activities. The results of litigation and claims cannot be predicted with certainty. Refer to “Risk factors—Risks related to our business and industry—We are and may continue to be subject to litigation, including individual and class action lawsuits, as well as regulatory audits, disputes, inquiries, investigations, and enforcement actions by regulators and governmental authorities” and Note 22 to our Consolidated Financial Statements included elsewhere in this Form 10-K for a summary of legal proceedings to which we are a party.

Item 4. Mine Safety Disclosures

Not applicable.

PART II

Item 5. Market For Registrant's Common Equity, Related Stockholder Matters And Issuer Purchases Of Equity Securities

Holders of Record

Since June 5, 2025, our Class A common stock has been listed on the New York Stock Exchange under the symbol CRCL. As of March 3, 2026, there were 263 registered holders of record of our Class A common stock. The number of beneficial owners of our Class A common stock is substantially greater than the number of record holders, because a large portion of our Class A common stock is held in “street name” by brokers and other financial institutions on behalf of our stockholders. There is currently no established public trading market for our Class B common stock or Class C common stock. As of March 3, 2026, there were 4 registered holders of record of our Class B common stock and 0 registered holders of record of our Class C common stock.

Dividend Policy

We have never declared or paid cash dividends on our capital stock. We are not obligated to pay any dividends on our Class A common stock, Class B common stock, or Class C common stock and we currently do not anticipate paying any dividends on our capital stock in the foreseeable future. Any future determination to declare dividends will be made at the discretion of our board of directors and will depend on our financial condition, operating results, capital requirements, general business conditions, and other factors that our board of directors may deem relevant.

Recent Sales of Unregistered Securities

During fiscal year 2025, stock options to purchase 1,954,685 shares were exercised, at a weighted-average exercise price of $3.48. The issuance of the shares upon exercise were exempt from registration under Section 4(a)(2) of the Securities Act in that the transaction was between an issuer and sophisticated investors or members of its management and did not involve any public offering or under Rule 701 promulgated under the Securities Act in that the transactions were under compensatory benefit plans and contracts relating to compensation.

In January 2025, we issued 3,857,332 shares of our Class A common stock, with a fair value of $120.2 million, in connection with the Hashnote acquisition including shares accounted for as compensation for post-combination services. The securities were issued to the sellers in the Hashnote acquisition. No underwriters were involved in this transaction. This transaction was exempt from registration under Section 4(a)(2) of the Securities Act in that the transaction was between an issuer and a sophisticated investor and did not involve any public offering.

In February 2025, we issued an aggregate of 45,414 shares of Series E redeemable convertible preferred stock and 1,130,314 shares of our Class A common stock to warrant holders upon the cashless exercise of those warrants. The warrants were issued in connection with a loan agreement with a bank of approximately $20.0 million, which was repaid in full in November 2019. No underwriters were involved in this transaction. The transaction was exempt from registration under Section 3(a)(9) of the Securities Act in that the securities were issued upon conversion of existing securities.

In July 2025, we issued 270,777 shares of our Class A common stock, with a fair value of $50.2 million, to Cybavo employees as compensation for post-combination services. No underwriters were involved in this transaction. This transaction was exempt from registration under Section 4(a)(2) of the Securities Act in that the transaction was between an issuer and sophisticated investors or members of its management and did not involve any public offering.

In October 2025, we issued an aggregate of 675,174 shares of Class A common stock in connection with certain holders of a convertible note converting their principal and accrued interest balance of approximately $11.0 million into Class A common stock. The convertible note was issued to an investment company in connection with the acquisition of SeedInvest. The note had an original principal amount of $24.0 million. No underwriters were involved in this transaction. The transaction was exempt from registration under Section 3(a)(9) of the Securities Act in that the securities were issued upon conversion of existing securities.

In December 2025, we issued 26,658 shares of our Class A common stock, with a fair value of $2.4 million, in connection with the acquisition of the intellectual property of Informal Systems Inc. The securities were issued to the seller in the asset acquisition. No underwriters were involved in this transaction. This transaction was exempt from registration under Section 4(a)(2) of the Securities Act in that the transaction was between an issuer and a sophisticated investor and did not involve any public offering.

Issuer Purchases of Equity Securities

We did not repurchase any shares of our Class A common stock during the three months ended December 31, 2025.

Item 6. [Reserved]

ITEM 7. MANAGEMENT’S DISCUSSION AND ANALYSIS OF FINANCIAL CONDITION AND RESULTS OF OPERATIONS

You should read the following discussion of our financial condition and results of operations in conjunction with our Consolidated Financial Statements, including the notes thereto, included elsewhere in this Form 10-K. In addition to historical information, the following discussion and analysis contains forward-looking statements that reflect our plans, estimates, and beliefs. Our actual results and the timing of events could differ materially from those anticipated in the forward-looking statements. Factors that could cause or contribute to these differences include those discussed below and elsewhere in this Form 10-K, particularly in the “Risk Factors” section.

This Management’s Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations focuses on a discussion of the 2025 results as compared to the 2024 results, unless otherwise noted. For a discussion of 2024 results as compared to 2023 results, see “Management’s Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations” within our Prospectus, dated June 5, 2025, filed with the SEC on Form 424B in connection with our IPO.

Executive Overview

In the fourth quarter and full year 2025, we continued building the infrastructure for an open, programmable internet financial system by scaling adoption of USDC and expanding our platform across product, network, and regulatory milestones.

During the fourth quarter of 2025 (compared to fourth quarter of 2024):

•USDC in circulation grew 72% to $75.3 billion; USDC onchain transaction volume grew 247% to $11.9 trillion.

•Total revenue and reserve income grew 77% to $770 million.

•Net Income from continuing operations increased by $129 million to $133 million.

•Adjusted EBITDA grew 412% to $167 million.

For the full year 2025 (compared to full year of 2024):

•Total revenue and reserve income grew 64% to $2.7 billion.

•Net Loss from continuing operations was $70 million compared to a Net Income from continuing operations in the prior year of $157 million, significantly impacted by $424 million for stock-based compensation related to vesting conditions met by our IPO.

•Adjusted EBITDA grew 104% to $582 million.

See “—Non-GAAP Financial Measures” below for a reconciliation of Adjusted EBITDA to net income (loss) from continuing operations, the most closely comparable GAAP measure, and additional information about the limitations of our non-GAAP measures.

In addition, during fiscal year 2025, we also:

•Expanded USDC adoption globally as more enterprises, developers, and public institutions integrated digital dollars into real-world payments, treasury, and onchain financial workflows.

•Launched Arc in public testnet with over 100+ participants spanning banking, capital markets, digital assets, payments and technology.

•Launched and expanded Circle Payments Network (CPN).

•Grew EURC and USYC following our relaunch of USYC in the third quarter of 2025.

•Strengthened our regulatory foundation, including receiving conditional OCC approval to establish a national trust bank, further reinforcing the infrastructure supporting USDC.

Overview of Business

Our mission is to raise global economic prosperity through the frictionless exchange of value.

We were founded in 2013, on the belief that we could connect the world more deeply by building a new global economic system on the foundation of the internet, and facilitate the creation of a world where everyone, everywhere can share value as easily as we can today share information, content, and communications.

We are building a full-stack internet financial platform business anchored by our stablecoin network. Our business is organized around three reinforcing pillars: (i) Arc, an open Layer-1 blockchain network and related developer/interoperability infrastructure; (ii) Circle Digital Assets and Services, including USDC, EURC, USYC and related liquidity infrastructure such as Circle Mint and xReserve; and (iii) Circle Applications, including products like CPN and StableFX that deliver real-world utility on Arc and across a multichain ecosystem. The three pillars of our platform are designed to reinforce one another: Arc is expected to provide an enterprise-grade foundation for stablecoin finance and consumer-scale applications; Circle Digital Assets and related services supply trusted units of value and liquidity infrastructure; and Circle Applications translate that infrastructure into real-world utility for institutions, developers, and end-users.

Our business model is driven by the growth of our platform, including the use and continued utility of Circle Digital Assets. We invest in expansion of our platform by partnering with major financial and technology institutions to drive distribution of Circle Digital Assets, building global fiat on- and off-ramps to increase accessibility and liquidity of Circle Digital Assets, and providing developer tools and operational infrastructure that reduce friction and enable new applications using our Circle Digital Assets, including tools that can be used on our platform without a direct relationship with us. We also aim to increase network activity through the launch of new products and services, expansion into new markets, and the fostering of third-party innovation on our platform, in each case, with a regulation-first approach.

Circle stablecoins and related reserve income

We currently derive a substantial majority of our revenue from reserve income on the reserve assets backing our stablecoins, USDC and EURC. Reserve income was 96.0% and 99.1% of our total revenue in the years ended December 31, 2025 and 2024, respectively. Historically, we earn reserve income on the reserve assets backing our stablecoins in circulation at interest rates close to the prevailing SOFR during the applicable periods. We term the rate of return generated on assets held in reserve as the “reserve return rate”. See “—Key operating indicators and financial results” for the calculation of reserve return rate. The reserve income that we generate is a function of (i) our stablecoins in circulation over a given period and (ii) the reserve return rate.

Other products

In addition to revenue from reserve income on the reserve assets backing our stablecoins, we continue to expand product offerings and services that benefit from and support the growth of our platform and the utility of Circle Digital Assets. Our other products contributed 4.0% and 0.9% of Circle’s total revenue in the years ended December 31, 2025 and 2024 respectively. We believe these and other new product and service offerings will contribute to the growth of our platform and the use of Circle Digital Assets, and over time drive a flywheel of growth that has been the hallmark of successful internet-driven networks. We also expect growth in our network to drive increases in our stablecoins in circulation and thereby drive our reserve income. We anticipate growing these offerings in the coming years, diversifying our revenue profile.

These offerings include:

•Arc Blockchain and Related Developer Infrastructure – Arc is our open, Layer-1 blockchain purpose-built to bring real world economic activity onchain, supported by developer tools (including Circle Wallets and Circle Contracts) and interoperability services (including CCTP and Gateway) designed to reduce complexity and help developers and enterprises build and operate onchain applications that move value across networks.

•Circle Tokenized Funds – Our tokenized fund, USYC, which is a part of our Circle Digital Assets, is an onchain representation of shares in a traditional money market fund intended primarily for use as collateral in digital asset markets, providing yield to token holders and complementing USDC and EURC in institutional trading, treasury, and collateral workflows.

•Circle Liquidity Services – Circle Mint and xReserve provide institutional liquidity and trust infrastructure for Circle Digital Assets, including minting, redeeming, and moving USDC and EURC through Circle Mint, and enabling third-party developers to deploy USDC-interoperable stablecoins through xReserve.

•Circle Applications – Our application-layer products build on Circle Digital Assets and Arc to deliver practical utility, including CPN, which connects eligible financial institutions to facilitate near-instant, 24/7/365 payment settlement using regulated stablecoins, and StableFX, an institutional stablecoin foreign exchange engine built on Arc that supports onchain settlement and configurable escrow-based trade settlement.

See Part I, Item 1 – “Business” for a detailed description of our suite of products and services.

Discontinued products

As we continue to focus on our core strategy of growing the Circle stablecoin network, we have discontinued certain products that we deemed as non-core to our business. Together, these products contributed less than 1% of total revenue in the years ended December 31, 2025 and 2024 and we do not anticipate them to impact our future financial or operating performance.

Significant Transactions

Initial Public Offering and Follow-on Public Offering

In June 2025, we completed our IPO, in which we issued and sold 19.9 million shares of Class A common stock, including the underwriters’ over-allotment option which was exercised in full, at a public offering price of $31.00 per share, which resulted in net proceeds to us of $583.0 million after deducting the underwriting discounts and commissions and before deducting offering costs of $12.8 million, which were charged to additional paid-in capital as a reduction of the net proceeds received from the IPO. Certain selling stockholders offered an additional 19.2 million shares of our Class A common stock at the IPO price in a secondary offering, for which we received no proceeds.

In connection with the IPO, all shares of our outstanding redeemable convertible preferred stock automatically converted into a total of 139.8 million shares of our Class A common stock, and a total of 19.6 million shares of Class A common stock held by our co-founders and certain entities controlled by our co-founders were converted into an equivalent number of shares of Class B common stock. Certain of our restricted stock units granted to employees included both a service condition and a liquidity-event related performance condition. The performance condition related to these awards was met upon the commencement of trading of our Class A common stock on the NYSE, and we recognized $423.8 million of stock-based compensation expense, net of $62.7 million of capitalized costs related to internally developed software, for the vesting of approximately 9.5 million shares of Class A common stock, 4.0 million of which were withheld for tax withholding requirements.

In August 2025, we completed a follow-on public offering of our Class A common stock, in which we issued and sold 3.5 million shares of our Class A common stock, including the underwriters’ over-allotment option which was exercised in full, at a public offering price of $130.00 per share. This resulted in net proceeds to us of $444.8 million after deducting the underwriting discounts and commissions and before deducting offering costs of $1.8 million, which were charged to additional paid-in capital as a reduction of the net proceeds received from the follow-on public offering. Certain selling stockholders offered an additional 8.0 million shares of our Class A common stock at the follow-on public offering price in a secondary offering, for which we received no proceeds.

Hashnote Acquisition

In January 2025, we acquired 100% of the ownership interest in Hashnote, which, through its affiliates, is the fund manager of Hashnote International Short Duration Yield Fund Ltd. (“SDYF”), a TMMF and the issuer of USYC. The fair value of consideration transferred for the Hashnote Acquisition was approximately $100.1 million, subject to customary adjustments, consisting of $10.2 million in cash and approximately 2.9 million shares of our Class A common stock.

Key Factors Affecting Operating Results

The growth and success of our business as well as our financial condition and operating results have been, and will continue to be affected by a number of factors, including:

Growth of the internet financial system

The internet financial system is built on blockchain infrastructure, and represents a fundamental shift that we believe will result in a profound change to the existing financial system by materially improving efficiency, reducing costs, expanding accessibility, and accelerating innovation. While the internet financial system has grown rapidly, it remains in its infancy and is very small relative to the legacy financial system. We believe we are well positioned to be among the winners in this emerging, transformative space, and we expect increased adoption and expansion of the internet financial system to be a key driver of growth in all our products and services, and hence of our overall financial performance.

Adoption of stablecoins as the core means of value exchange within the internet financial system

We believe stablecoins are the core facilitator of value exchange in the internet financial system. We believe that we are poised to lead the way in driving the growth of stablecoins, with our trusted brand, regulation-first posture, robust scalable infrastructure, institutional-grade safety and soundness, global presence, and strong interoperability. We stand to benefit as the adoption of stablecoins and the internet financial system increase, due not only to the growth in circulation of our stablecoins but also to growth of the platform that we have developed.

Expanding global awareness and distribution of our platform

Our efforts to expand global awareness and distribution of our digital assets, and to grow our platform, follow a multi-pronged approach that includes: obtaining additional foreign licenses and registrations where necessary; collaboration with key strategic partners; local go-to-market strategies; and further integration with major blockchains. We expect increased awareness and interest in our platform, anchored by our stablecoin network, including both increasing penetration among our existing markets and expansion into new markets, to positively impact our performance.

Growth in new products and services

We believe we have a sizable opportunity to grow our business through the introduction of new products and services. Arc, our related developer infrastructure, and CPN provide platforms upon which third-party software developers can build and create their own products and financial applications. We continue to develop our products and services, which in turn facilitate the creation of new third-party products for the emerging internet financial system. We expect this will, in turn, increase demand for Circle Digital Assets and serve as a critical driver to the growth of our platform. We anticipate that the products developed on our platform will drive new sources of revenue for us including network service fees, subscription fees, and additional developer services fees.

Strategic partnerships

We complement our products and services with enterprise-level strategic commercial partnerships, with the goal of driving growth in the distribution and adoption of our platform and Circle Digital Assets. Through these partnerships, we enable companies to offer internet-native financial services to their own customers, to the benefit of our overall network. Many of these partnerships are still in early stages, but we expect that they will contribute meaningfully to our operating and financial performance over time. A few of our strategic partners include Coinbase, who provides a variety of products and services that support the growth and utility of USDC, and Binance, who makes USDC extensively available across its full suite of products and services and adopts USDC as a dollar stablecoin for its corporate treasury. We plan to continue to enter into strategic partnerships like these to expand our product offerings and amplify the network effects of our platform business. In addition, we may enter into such arrangements where we incentivize the use of USDC in exchange for our participation in the digital asset ecosystem. We believe each of these partnerships helps to foster growth of the internet financial system broadly and of our platform and Circle Digital Assets specifically, by reaching new end-users and expanding opportunities for existing end-users.

Distribution costs

We incur costs to incentivize distributors to use and distribute Circle Digital Assets, and these distribution costs have a meaningful impact on our financial performance. For example, our distribution costs payable to key distributors such as Coinbase and Binance are directly impacted by the amount of USDC held on their respective platforms, which is in turn affected by actions and policies that we do not control or oversee. We have added and expect to continue to add additional distributors in the future and anticipate that such distribution contracts may have different commercial terms depending on negotiations with our distributors and the circumstances in our evolving industry. Moreover, our financial performance has been, and we expect it will continue to be, affected by the mix of USDC growth driven by commercial distribution partnerships versus organic growth outside of those arrangements. To the extent USDC adoption increases through channels that do not require third-party incentive payments, our distribution costs may decrease. As we add distributors and approved participants to which incentive payments are paid, our distribution costs may increase in the future.

Interest rate fluctuations

We derive a substantial majority of our revenue from reserve income. Fluctuations in interest rates impact reserve return rates, which in turn affect our reserve income. However, interest rates are only one contributor to reserve income, and the other primary contributor—USDC in circulation—is inherently difficult to predict given the uncertainties in end-user and customer behavior. For example, although interest rates are positively correlated with the opportunity cost of holding USDC versus other financial instruments, given the utility of USDC as a means for the exchange of value, an increase in interest rates does not necessarily result in a decrease in USDC in circulation (and vice versa). Any relationship between interest rates and USDC in circulation is complex, highly uncertain, and unproven. As a result, while we are able to predict the impact of interest rate changes on the reserve return rate, given uncertainties in end-user and customer behavior and interests and market dynamics, we are unable to accurately predict the impact of such changes on reserve income.

Government regulation

We have always had a “regulation-first” philosophy that underlies our operations and has led to significant investments in building a robust compliance infrastructure. However, the laws and regulations to which we are subject are rapidly evolving and increasing in scope. As a result, we monitor regulatory changes closely and we expect to continue to invest significant resources in our legal, policy, compliance, product, and engineering teams to ensure our business practices comply with, and plan and prepare for, current and future regulations. National legislation in the US (including the GENIUS Act) and abroad is expected to provide increased certainty for market participants and accelerate institutional adoption. We believe increased global regulatory clarity will result in increased conviction in stablecoins by consumers and enterprises alike, which will drive greater adoption. We believe these trends will naturally increase the growth of our platform and the use and utility of Circle Digital Assets, and set us up to be the leading regulated player in the space.

Key Operating Indicators and Financials Results

We regularly review several key operating and non-GAAP financial indicators to evaluate our performance and trends and inform management’s budgets, financial projections, and strategic decisions. The following table presents our key operating and financial results, as well as the relevant GAAP measures, for the periods indicated:


(dollar amounts are in millions)	Year ended December 31,
	2025			2024
Key operating indicators:
USDC in circulation, end of period(1)	$	75,266		$	43,857
USDC in circulation, average of period(1)	$	64,870		$	33,342
Reserve return rate	4.1		%	5.0		%
USDC on platform, end of period	$	12,503		$	2,236
USDC on platform, daily weighted-average percentage	11.1		%	2.2		%
Key financial results:
Total revenue and reserve income	$	2,747		$	1,676
Revenue less distribution costs(2)	$	1,083		$	659
RLDC Margin(3)	39		%	39		%
Net income (loss) from continuing operations	$	(70)		$	157
Net income (loss) from continuing operations margin(4)	(3)		%	9		%
Adjusted EBITDA(5)	$	582		$	285
Adjusted EBITDA Margin(5)	54		%	43		%

(1) When calculating USDC in circulation, we exclude: (a) “tokens allowed but not issued,” which are tokens that exist on the Algorand, Hedera, Polkadot, and Solana blockchains due to the technical implementation of USDC on those blockchains. These tokens are held by us in restricted, segregated “tokens allowed but not issued” blockchain addresses. We do not receive any funds for their creation, and they are not redeemable for the U.S. dollar. These tokens are restricted for use while held in such blockchain addresses. These tokens cannot be redeemed for the U.S. dollar as the private keys are securely controlled by us and the blockchain addresses are not configured to allow redemption requests to be established by Circle Mint. When a minting request is received for USDC on these blockchains and the funds underlying such request is received, the corresponding amount of “tokens allowed but not issued” is transferred from the segregated “tokens allowed but not issued” addresses to the minting address via a system controlled process administered by us, at which point the tokens are considered to be USDC in circulation; (b) “access denied tokens,” which are tokens that are restricted from being accessed by the holder to comply with a law, regulation, or legal order from a duly recognized and authorized court of competent jurisdiction, or governmental or other authority with jurisdiction over us. When these tokens were originally issued (i.e., before they were restricted from being accessed), we received the equivalent amount of fiat currency in connection with their original minting. Upon determination that a token should be an “access denied token,” we restrict the access of the holder to such token and transfer the reserves relating to such token to a segregated bank account specifically for “access denied tokens.” The assets in such segregated bank account constitute a component of USDC reserves, and we do not extinguish the associated liability until the segregated reserve funds are transferred to the relevant law enforcement agency or government body or until the access denial request is reversed and a subsequent redemption request is made by the stablecoin holder. As of December 31, 2025 and 2024, there were $116.8 million and $91.8 million of “access denied tokens,” respectively; and (c) “pending burns”, which are USDC balances held within our smart contracts that are pending finalization on the blockchain. We exclude these tokens because they are not used for transactions and thus do not reflect our platform’s breadth, which as noted below, is the principal purpose for which we present USDC in circulation, end of period and USDC in circulation, average of period. We include corporate-held USDC (i.e., USDC held by us), as we routinely use USDC to pay for distribution, transaction, and other costs as well as operating expenses and thus corporate-held USDC contributes to our platform’s breadth. As of December 31, 2025 and 2024, there were $823.0 million and $294.5 million of corporate-held USDC, respectively.

(2) Revenue less distribution costs is calculated as Total revenue and reserve income less Total distribution, transaction, and other costs.

(3) RLDC Margin is calculated as Total revenue and reserve income less Total distribution, transaction, and other costs as a percentage of Total revenue and reserve income.

(4) Net income (loss) from continuing operations margin is calculated as Net income (loss) from continuing operations divided by Total revenue and reserve income.

(5) See “Non-GAAP Financial Measures” for reconciliation of GAAP to non-GAAP measures. Adjusted EBITDA Margin is calculated as Adjusted EBITDA divided by Total revenue and reserve income less Total distribution, transaction, and other costs.

USDC in circulation, end of period and USDC in circulation, average of period

USDC in circulation, end of period is the total amount of USDC minted and outstanding as of the end of the reporting period. USDC in circulation, average of period is calculated as the simple daily average of USDC in circulation, with the daily USDC in circulation determined at the end of each day. USDC in circulation, end of period and USDC in circulation, average of period are major contributing factors to our reserve income and also provide a measure of our platform ’s breadth. We expect that the continued growth and development of the internet financial system will further drive increases in USDC in circulation, end of period and USDC in circulation, average of period.

Reserve return rate

Reserve return rate is the rate of return generated on assets held in reserve. Reserve return rate is calculated as our reserve income divided by the average period balance of reserves segregated for the benefit of holders of our stablecoins, with average period balance of reserves segregated for the benefit of holders of our stablecoins measured as the simple daily average of reserves segregated for the benefit of holders of our stablecoins, with daily average of reserves segregated for the benefit of holders of our stablecoins determined at the end of each day.

USDC on platform, end of period and USDC on platform, daily weighted-average percentage

USDC on platform is defined as the total amount of USDC on our platform, which includes USDC held within Circle Mint accounts, corporate-held USDC, and USDC held within non-custodial wallets offered through our platform (including our managed wallet services such as Circle Wallets and other wallet technologies). USDC on platform provides a measure of our platform’s breadth and is also used to calculate our share of reserve income under the Collaboration Agreement.

Daily weighted-average percentage of USDC on platform is defined as the average of the percentage of USDC in circulation that is held on our platform at the end of each day, weighted based on the amount of USDC in circulation at the end of each day. Percentage of USDC on platform at the end of each day is used to calculate our share of reserve income under the Collaboration Agreement.

Adjusted EBITDA

Adjusted EBITDA, a non-GAAP financial measure, is calculated as net income (loss) from continuing operations excluding: net income (loss) attributable to noncontrolling interests, depreciation and amortization expenses; interest expense, net of amortization of discounts and premiums; interest income; income tax expense (benefit); stock-based compensation expense; certain legal expenses; realized and unrealized (gains) losses, net, on digital assets held for investment, other related investments and strategic investments; realized (gains) losses on available-for-sale debt securities; impairment losses on strategic investments; restructuring expenses; acquisition-related costs; change in fair value of convertible debt, warrant liability, and embedded derivatives; charitable contributions to Circle Foundation; losses on sale of long-lived assets; and foreign currency exchange loss (gain). Adjusted EBITDA is a key measure used by our management and board of directors to monitor and evaluate the growth and performance of our business operations, facilitate internal comparisons of the historical operating performance of our business operations, facilitate external comparisons of the results of our overall business to the historical operating performance of other companies that may have different capital structures or operating histories, review and assess the performance of our management team and other employees, and prepare budgets and evaluate strategic planning decisions regarding future operating investments. See “—Non-GAAP Financial Measures” below for a reconciliation of Adjusted EBITDA to net income (loss) from continuing operations, the most closely comparable GAAP measure, and additional information about the limitations of our non-GAAP measures.

Other Important Platform Metrics

In addition to our key operating indicators and financial results, we regularly measure the scale of our platform and the relevance of our products and services to developers and end-users by monitoring and reviewing certain important platform metrics, including: USDC minted, USDC redeemed, stablecoin market share, meaningful wallets.


(dollar amounts and meaningful wallets are in millions)	Year ended December 31,
	2025			2024
Important Platform Metrics
USDC minted	$	257,465		$	141,342
USDC redeemed	$	226,056		$	121,897
Stablecoin market share, end of period	28		%	24		%
Meaningful wallets, end of period	6.80			4.26

USDC minted / USDC redeemed

USDC minted measures the flow of U.S. dollar fiat converted to USDC and USDC redeemed measures the flow of USDC converted to U.S. dollar fiat, in each case, initiated by Circle Mint customers. We believe this demonstrates our operational capacity and resiliency to process minting and redemptions through our digital and banking infrastructure.

Stablecoin market share

Stablecoin market share is defined as the amount of USDC in circulation as a percentage of the total U.S. dollar fiat-backed stablecoins with circulation above $100 million, according to CoinMarketCap. Stablecoin market share reflects how much of the stablecoin market is composed of USDC relative to the competitive landscape.

Meaningful Wallets

Meaningful wallets are defined as the number of onchain digital asset wallets with an amount of USDC above $10. As a single end-user may have multiple onchain digital asset wallets, meaningful wallets do not represent, and we do not use meaningful wallets as a measure of, the number of unique end-users with more than $10 of USDC. Nonetheless, we believe that the number of meaningful wallets is an indicator of the breadth of USDC’s adoption and the reach of our stablecoin network.

Key Components of Revenue and Expenses

Revenue and reserve income

Reserve income

We earn interest and dividends on assets held in reserve accounts, which include cash balances held at banks, and the Circle Reserve Fund, as applicable. Interest income is recognized under the effective interest method, and dividend income is recognized when declared. Reserve income is recorded on a gross basis before the impact of any distribution costs. An increase (or decrease) in the amount of our stablecoins in circulation would increase (or decrease) the amount of assets held in reserve accounts, and thus, assuming a constant reserve return rate, would result in increased (or decreased) reserve income.

Other revenue

Other revenue consists of revenues generated from products and services that increase the utility of our platform and our Circle Digital Assets. The components of other revenue include subscription and services revenue, transaction revenue, and other revenues. Subscription and services consists of customer agreements where recurring revenue is generated from integration and maintenance services, fund management, time-based access, and user-based licensing. Transaction revenue is generated from usage-based, volume-based, or event-driven transactions. This includes fees associated with the redemption of Circle Digital Assets, blockchain rewards revenue, and use of our platform infrastructure in facilitating digital asset transactions. Other is primarily generated from fees associated with certain non-recurring services and discontinued legacy products.

Distribution, transaction, and other costs

Distribution costs

We incur distribution costs to incentivize distributors to use and distribute our stablecoins, for example, Coinbase, Binance, and others. Under the Collaboration Agreement, Coinbase receives allocations based on the amount of USDC held on its platform after our issuer retention, and Coinbase also receives half of the remaining amount tied to broader ecosystem growth after amounts paid to any approved third-party ecosystem participants pursuant to our Stablecoin Ecosystem Agreement. These deductions are accounted for as components of the overall arrangement with Coinbase as we are not providing a distinct service to issue stablecoins and manage the associated reserves. The Collaboration Agreement is accounted for as an executory contract and reflected in distribution and transaction costs in our Consolidated Statements of Operations. For the years ended December 31, 2025 and 2024, we incurred $1.4 billion and $924.5 million respectively, of distribution costs in connection with our agreements with Coinbase. We expect our distribution expense to increase in the future, as we add distributors and approved participants. Our distribution expense will also increase to the extent our reserve income increases over time. We also anticipate new distribution arrangements may differ depending on our negotiations with our distributors and the circumstances in our evolving industry.

Transaction costs

We incur transaction costs to pay for the blockchain network transaction fees necessary to complete transactions on supported blockchains. For a given blockchain, we purchase the necessary digital assets in advance and, upon initiation of a transaction, we pay blockchain transactions fees using our inventory of digital assets. We expect this expense to increase going forward due to increases in volume and rising fees on certain popular blockchain networks.

Other costs

Other costs primarily comprise expenses incurred as a result of facilitating and delivering products and services, including the certain fees related to the issuance of USYC and other costs to participate in activities that enhance the utility of Circle stablecoins and our infrastructure.

Other than distribution, transaction, and other costs, we do not incur distinct costs to mint and/or redeem stablecoins.

Operating expenses

Compensation expenses

Compensation expenses are primarily driven by employee compensation, including salaries and wages, stock-based compensation, bonuses, post-retirement benefits, commissions, and severance payments. As we expand our business and team, we expect compensation expenses to increase.

General and administrative expenses

General and administrative expenses include costs incurred to support our business operations. Specifically, expenses incurred related to insurance policies, dues and subscriptions, professional services, bank fees, rent, travel and business lodging, and contributions and donations. We expect general and administrative expenses to grow as we continue to invest to support the overall growth of our business.

Depreciation and amortization expenses

Depreciation and amortization expenses are incurred from the amortization of internally developed software, and from the amortization of intangible assets acquired in business combinations and asset acquisitions such as the technology platform, customer relationships, brand names, and licenses. We expect that our depreciation and amortization expenses will increase in future periods as we continue to invest in the development of our various digital platforms.

IT infrastructure costs

IT infrastructure costs include costs incurred in operating and maintaining our platform, including network, website hosting, and infrastructure costs. IT infrastructure costs also include software and technology costs incurred to support our general business operations including cloud hosting costs, cybersecurity, electronic communications archiving software, change management, and compliance technology such as AML and KYC software. We expect IT infrastructure costs to grow as we continue to support the overall growth of our business.

Marketing expenses

Marketing expenses are incurred to drive additional customers to our platform, capitalize on cross-sell opportunities from our customer base, and build awareness of our products and brand with the objective of growing our customer base. We expect marketing expenses to grow as we continue to support the overall growth of our business.

Digital assets losses (gains)

Effective January 1, 2024, upon the adoption of Accounting Standards Update No. 2023-08, Accounting for and Disclosure of Crypto Assets (“ASU 2023-08”), digital assets are measured at fair value. Fair value measurements for digital assets are based on quoted market prices in active markets. Gains and losses upon sale of digital assets are measured as the difference between the cash proceeds and the carrying basis of the digital assets as determined on a first-in, first-out (“FIFO”) basis for each pool of digital assets.

Prior to January 1, 2024, digital assets, including those held as collateral, were accounted for as indefinite-lived intangible assets. Accordingly, these digital assets were not subject to amortization. Instead, we tested digital assets for impairment by comparing the digital asset’s fair value to its carrying value. We measured and recognized an impairment loss whenever the carrying value exceeded quoted market prices of the respective digital assets during the period and applied costs to transactions on a first-in, first-out basis.

Other income (expense), net

Other income (expense), net, is composed of multiple income (expense) categories, including, but not limited to, the following:

•Realized and unrealized gains (losses) on liabilities at fair value (e.g., convertible debt, warrants, derivatives, and embedded derivatives);

•Realized and unrealized gains (losses) on investments, which include changes in fair value related to our marketable equity securities, digital assets held for investment and observable price changes on our non-marketable equity securities;

•Impairment losses on equity investments;

•Interest income on corporate cash balances;

•Interest expense, net of accretion of discounts and amortization of premiums; and

•Foreign currency exchange gains and losses due to remeasurement of certain foreign currency denominated monetary assets and liabilities.

Income tax expense (benefit)

Income tax expense (benefit) includes income taxes related to foreign jurisdictions and U.S. Federal and state income taxes. As we conduct business activities internationally, any changes in the U.S. and foreign taxation of such activities may increase our overall provision for income taxes in the future.

Results of Operations

We discuss our historical results of operations below on a consolidated basis. The following table sets forth a summary of our Consolidated Results of Operations for the periods indicated, and the changes between periods. These results of operations have been prepared on the same basis as our Consolidated Financial Statements included elsewhere in this Form 10-K. The following Consolidated Results of Operations should be read together with our Consolidated Financial Statements and related notes, included elsewhere in this Form 10-K.


	Year Ended December 31,
(in thousands, except percentages)	2025		2024		$ Change		% Change
Revenue and reserve income
Reserve income	$	2,636,822	$	1,661,084	$	975,738	58.7	%
Other revenue	109,820		15,169		94,651		624.0	%
Total revenue and reserve income	2,746,642		1,676,253		1,070,389		63.9	%
Distribution, transaction and other costs
Distribution and transaction costs	1,661,549		1,010,811		650,738		64.4	%
Other costs	2,102		6,553		(4,451)		(67.9)	%
Total distribution, transaction and other costs	1,663,651		1,017,364		646,287		63.5	%
Operating expenses
Compensation expenses	844,878		263,410		581,468		220.7	%
General and administrative expenses	190,272		137,283		52,989		38.6	%
Depreciation and amortization expenses	76,627		50,854		25,773		50.7	%
IT infrastructure costs	36,638		27,109		9,529		35.2	%
Marketing expenses	25,718		17,326		8,392		48.4	%
Digital assets losses (gains)	5,293		(4,251)		9,544		(224.5)	%
Total operating expenses	1,179,426		491,731		687,695		139.9	%
Operating income (loss) from continuing operations	(96,435)		167,158		(263,593)		(157.7)	%
Other income (expense), net	(6,458)		54,416		(60,874)		(111.9)	%
Net income (loss) from continuing operations before income taxes	(102,893)		221,574		(324,467)		(146.4)	%
Income tax expense (benefit)	(33,375)		64,583		(97,958)		(151.7)	%
Net income (loss) from continuing operations	(69,518)		156,991		(226,509)		(144.3)	%
Loss from operations of discontinued businesses	—		(1,324)		1,324		(100.0)	%
Net income (loss)	(69,518)		155,667		(225,185)		(144.7)	%
Less: Net loss attributable to noncontrolling interests	(10)		—		(10)		100.0	%
Net income (loss) attributable to common stockholders	$	(69,508)	$	155,667	$	(225,175)	(144.7)	%

Revenue and reserve income

Reserve income. Reserve income increased by $975.7 million, or 58.7%, for the year ended December 31, 2025, compared to the year ended December 31, 2024, of which approximately $1.4 billion of the increase is attributable to a 93.9% increase in average daily USDC in circulation reflecting increased demand for Circle stablecoins, as well as expanded strategic partnerships and integrations. This was offset by a decrease of approximately $442.1 million attributable to a 90 basis point decline in the average yields reflecting interest rate actions undertaken by the U.S. Federal Reserve.

Other revenue. Other revenue increased by $94.7 million or 624.0% for the year ended December 31, 2025, compared to the year ended December 31, 2024, due to a $99.1 million increase driven by additional integration services performed, blockchain rewards revenue, redemption fees related to our Circle stablecoins and Circle Tokenized Funds, and fund management fees, offset by a $6.0 million decrease in other fees generated from other legacy products.

Distribution, transaction and other costs

Distribution and transaction costs. Distribution and transaction costs increased by $650.7 million or 64.4% for the year ended December 31, 2025, compared to the year ended December 31, 2024, driven by a $438.4 million increase in distribution costs paid to Coinbase as a combined result of increased reserve income and their on-platform balances, along with an increase of $152.1 million and $60.4 million in other distribution costs related to Binance and other strategic distribution partnerships, respectively.

Other costs. Other costs decreased by $4.5 million or 67.9% for the year ended December 31, 2025, compared to the year ended December 31, 2024, largely driven by a $4.1 million decrease in the costs related to the discontinued legacy products.

Operating Expenses

Compensation expenses. Compensation expenses increased by $581.5 million or 220.7%, for the year ended December 31, 2025, compared to the year ended December 31, 2024, driven by a $516.0 million increase of stock-based compensation expense largely related to the vesting of RSUs for which, the service-based condition had been met prior to the IPO and the liquidity-event related performance condition was met upon the commencement of trading of our Class A common stock on the NYSE. In addition, there was an increase of $44.0 million in salaries, wages and bonus expenses due to an increase in average headcount, as well as a $22.9 million increase in payroll taxes, largely related to the vesting of equity awards.

General and administrative expenses. General and administrative expenses increased by $53.0 million or 38.6% for the year ended December 31, 2025, compared to the year ended December 31, 2024, largely due to a $36.1 million increase in contributions and donations ($23.1 million of which was related to the contribution of shares of our Class A common stock for the benefit of Circle Foundation), a $6.7 million increase in travel and entertainment costs due to Company events and associated travel expenses, and a $4.7 million increase in legal, professional and consulting fees.

Depreciation and amortization expenses. Depreciation and amortization expenses increased by $25.8 million, or 50.7%, for the year ended December 31, 2025, compared to the year ended December 31, 2024, due to a $25.0 million increase in amortization expense of internally developed software.

IT infrastructure costs. IT infrastructure costs increased by $9.5 million or 35.2% for the year ended December 31, 2025, compared to the year ended December 31, 2024, due to a $9.5 million increase in software licenses to support infrastructure build-out and enhanced product offerings.

Marketing expenses. Marketing expenses increased $8.4 million or 48.4%, for the year ended December 31, 2025, compared to year ended December 31, 2024, driven by $8.6 million in increased spending in marketing, advertising and sponsorship campaigns.

Digital assets losses (gains). Digital assets losses (gains) changed by $9.5 million or 224.5% for the year ended December 31, 2025, compared to the year ended December 31, 2024, primarily due to changes in the prices of digital assets driven by market fluctuations and increased holdings in digital assets.

Other income (expense), net. Other income (expense), net changed by $60.9 million or 111.9% for the year ended December 31, 2025, compared to the year ended December 31, 2024, largely driven by a $87.2 million loss as a combined result of the increase in the fair value of our convertible notes due to an increase in the price of our Class A common stock, and the conversion of certain convertible notes into Class A common stock in the fourth quarter of 2025. This loss was offset by a $17.7 million increase in gains on digital assets held for investments due to a change in the prices of digital assets driven by market fluctuations, and a $13.0 million increase in interest income received on corporate cash balances.

Income tax expense (benefit). Income tax expense decreased by $98.0 million or 151.7% for the year ended December 31, 2025, compared to the year ended December 31, 2024, primarily due to increased stock-based compensation deductions and higher research and development tax credits.

Changes in Financial Position

The following table sets forth a summary of selected line items from our Consolidated Balance Sheets for the periods indicated, and the changes between periods. These selected line items have been prepared on the same basis as our Consolidated Financial Statements included elsewhere in this Form 10-K. The following selected line items should be read together with our Consolidated Financial Statements and related notes, included elsewhere in this Form 10-K.


(in thousands, except percentage information)	December 31, 2025		December 31, 2024		$ Change		% Change
ASSETS
Current assets:
Cash and cash equivalents (including cash and cash equivalents segregated for corporate-held stablecoins)	$	2,349,009	$	1,045,474	$	1,303,535	124.7	%
Cash and cash equivalents segregated for the benefit of stablecoin holders	75,067,932		43,918,572		31,149,360		70.9	%
Accounts receivable, net	62,866		6,418		56,448		879.5	%
Stablecoins receivable, net	—		6,957		(6,957)		(100.0)	%

Prepaid expenses and other current assets	321,660		187,528		134,132		71.5	%
Non-current assets:

Investments	84,265		84,114		151		0.2	%
Fixed assets, net	22,791		18,682		4,109		22.0	%
Digital assets	86,515		31,330		55,185		176.1	%
Goodwill	265,742		169,544		96,198		56.7	%
Intangible assets, net	411,146		331,394		79,752		24.1	%
Deferred tax assets, net	11,110		10,223		887		8.7	%
Other non-current assets	27,379		20,615		6,764		32.8	%
LIABILITIES, REDEEMABLE CONVERTIBLE PREFERRED STOCK AND STOCKHOLDERS’ EQUITY
Current liabilities:
Deposits from stablecoin holders	$	74,912,567	$	43,727,363	$	31,185,204	71.3	%
Accounts payable and accrued expenses	360,609		287,007		73,602		25.6	%

Convertible debt, net of debt discount	36,821		—		36,821		100.0	%
Other current liabilities	18,398		16,597		1,801		10.9	%
Non-current liabilities:
Convertible debt, net of debt discount	—		40,717		(40,717)		(100.0)	%
Deferred tax liabilities, net	28,702		29,559		(857)		(2.9)	%
Other non-current liabilities	25,337		21,281		4,056		19.1	%
Redeemable convertible preferred stock	—		1,139,765		(1,139,765)		(100.0)	%
Stockholders’ equity:
Additional paid-in capital	4,610,216		1,792,969		2,817,247		157.1	%
Accumulated deficit	(1,292,709)		(1,223,213)		(69,496)		5.7	%
Total stockholders’ equity	3,330,773		570,529		2,760,244		483.8	%

In accordance with applicable regulatory requirements and commercial law, for stablecoins issued and outstanding, we are generally required to hold at least an equivalent amount of fiat currency denominated assets, held in accounts that are titled FBO holders of Circle stablecoins. We may hold reserve assets segregated for the benefit of holders of Circle stablecoins in excess of deposits from holders of Circle stablecoins due to funds related to reserve income received that has not yet been transferred to corporate cash due to the timing of receipt and unprocessed customer deposits that have not yet been minted. We have access to and are entitled to the excess over redemption and customer obligations. We are not required by law or internal policy to maintain any such excess.

Current assets

Cash and cash equivalents (including cash and cash equivalents segregated for corporate-held stablecoins). Cash and cash equivalents (including cash and cash equivalents segregated for corporate-held stablecoins) increased by $1.3 billion, or 124.7%, as of December 31, 2025, compared to December 31, 2024, largely due to $1.0 billion cash proceeds from the issuance of common stock in connection with the IPO and the follow-on public offering, net of underwriting discounts and commissions and offering costs during the year ended December 31, 2025. Refer to “— Liquidity and Capital Resources — Cash Flows” below for further discussion on the net cash provided by operating activities, investing activities and financing activities during the period.

Cash and cash equivalents segregated for the benefit of stablecoin holders. Cash and cash equivalents segregated for the benefit of stablecoin holders increased by $31.1 billion, or 70.9%, as of December 31, 2025, compared to December 31, 2024, due to a 31.4 billion increase in USDC in circulation. Refer to “— Liquidity and Capital Resources — Composition of USDC reserves” below for further discussion of the composition of the reserves.

Accounts receivable, net. Accounts receivable, net increased by $56.4 million, or 879.5%, as of December 31, 2025, compared to December 31, 2024, due to a $39.3 million increase in the accounts receivables related to integration services for maintenance and support fees and new blockchain launches, a $19.9 million increase in the fair value of certain embedded derivatives associated with digital assets receivable for Integration Services due to mark-to-market fluctuations in the underlying digital assets, offset by a $2.8 million increase in allowance for credit losses.

Stablecoins receivable, net. Stablecoins receivable, net decreased by $7.0 million, or 100.0%, as of December 31, 2025, compared to December 31, 2024, due to a $7.0 million repayment of stablecoins.

Prepaid expenses and other current assets. Prepaid expenses and other current assets increased by $134.1 million, or 71.5%, as of December 31, 2025, compared to December 31, 2024, due to a $80.3 million increase in the reserve income receivables and a $56.6 million increase in income tax receivables.

Non-current assets

Investments. Investments were relatively flat as of December 31, 2025 compared to December 31, 2024.

Fixed assets, net. Fixed assets, net increased by $4.1 million, or 22.0%, as of December 31, 2025, compared to December 31, 2024, due to a $4.9 million increase in costs related to construction services for our corporate office space and other new asset additions of $1.7 million. This increase is offset by a $2.5 million increase in depreciation and amortization.

Digital assets. Digital assets increased by $55.2 million, or 176.1%, as of December 31, 2025, compared to December 31, 2024, due to a $56.0 million increase in blockchain rewards revenue, a $5.8 million increase in digital assets received for services, and a $2.1 million increase in purchases of digital assets, offset by a $8.7 million decrease due to mark-to-market fluctuations in digital assets.

Goodwill. Goodwill increased by $96.2 million, or 56.7%, as of December 31, 2025, compared to December 31, 2024, due to the recognition of $96.2 million of goodwill related to the Hashnote acquisition.

Intangible assets, net. Intangible assets, net increased by $79.8 million, or 24.1%, as of December 31, 2025, compared to December 31, 2024, due to a $65.9 million increase in internally developed software driven by the capitalization of stock-based compensation expense related to certain RSU awards that vested upon IPO and a $15.5 million increase in intangible assets related to our acquisition of Malachite.

Deposits from stablecoin holders. Deposits from stablecoin holders increased by $31.2 billion, or 71.3%, as of December 31, 2025, compared to December 31, 2024. Refer to the “Cash and cash equivalents segregated for the benefit of stablecoin holders” narrative above for further discussion.

Accounts payable and accrued expenses. Accounts payable and accrued expenses increased by $73.6 million, or 25.6%, as of December 31, 2025, compared to December 31, 2024, largely due to a $55.9 million increase in accrued distribution costs and incentive costs, a $23.9 million increase in accrued compensation expenses and a $19.2 million increase in vendor related costs, offset by a $37.5 million decrease in stablecoin redemption liabilities.

Convertible debt, net of debt discount. Convertible debt, net of debt discount decreased by $3.9 million, or 9.6%, as of December 31, 2025, compared to December 31, 2024 (classified as a non-current liability as of December 31, 2024), driven by a $5.0 million decrease as a combined result of the conversion of certain convertible notes into Class A common stock in the fourth quarter of 2025 and an increase in the fair value of our convertible debt driven by an increase in the price of our Class A common stock. This decrease was offset by an increase of $0.8 million due to debt discount amortization.

Redeemable convertible preferred stock

Redeemable convertible preferred stock. Redeemable convertible preferred stock decreased by $1.1 billion or 100.0% as of December 31, 2025, compared to December 31, 2024, as all shares of our outstanding redeemable convertible preferred stock automatically converted into Class A common stock in connection with the IPO.

Stockholders’ equity

Stockholders’ equity. Stockholders’ equity increased by $2.8 billion, or 483.8%, as of December 31, 2025, compared to December 31, 2024, primarily due to a $2.8 billion increase in additional paid-in capital which includes $1.1 billion from the conversion of redeemable convertible preferred stock into Class A common stock, $1.0 billion from the issuance of common stock in connection with our IPO and follow-on offering, net of underwriting discounts and commissions and offering costs, $216.7 million from the issuance of common stock upon the settlement of RSUs, net of shares withheld, $166.4 million of stock-based compensation and $89.0 million from the conversion of certain convertible notes into Class A common stock. This increase is offset by the net loss of $69.5 million recognized during the year ended December 31, 2025.

Non-GAAP Financial Measures

Adjusted EBITDA

To provide investors with additional information regarding our financial results, we have disclosed here and elsewhere in this Form 10-K Adjusted EBITDA, a non-GAAP financial measure that we calculate as net income (loss) from continuing operations excluding: net income (loss) attributable to noncontrolling interests; depreciation and amortization expenses; interest expense, net of amortization of discounts and premiums; interest income; income tax expense (benefit); stock-based compensation expense; certain legal expenses; realized and unrealized (gains) losses, net, on digital assets held for investment, other related investments and strategic investments; realized (gains) losses on available-for-sale debt securities; impairment losses on strategic investments; restructuring expenses; acquisition-related costs; change in fair value of convertible debt, warrant liability, and embedded derivatives; charitable contributions to Circle Foundation; losses on sale of long-lived assets and foreign currency exchange loss (gain). We have provided a reconciliation below of Adjusted EBITDA to net income (loss) from continuing operations, the most directly comparable GAAP financial measure.

We present Adjusted EBITDA because it is a key measure used by our management and board of directors to monitor and evaluate the growth and performance of our business operations, facilitate internal comparisons of the historical operating performance of our business operations, facilitate external comparisons of the results of our overall business to the historical operating performance of other companies that may have different capital structures or operating histories, review and assess the performance of our management team and other employees, and prepare budgets and evaluate strategic planning decisions regarding future operating investments. Accordingly, we believe that Adjusted EBITDA provides useful information to investors and others in understanding and evaluating our operating results in the same manner as our management and board of directors.

We believe it is useful to exclude non-cash charges, such as depreciation and amortization, stock-based compensation expense, and change in fair value of various financial instruments from Adjusted EBITDA because the amount of such expenses in any specific period may not directly correlate to the underlying performance of our business operations. We believe it is useful to exclude income tax expense (benefit), interest income, interest expense, and non-routine items as these items are not components of our core business operations.

Adjusted EBITDA has limitations as a financial measure and you should not consider it in isolation or as a substitute for analysis of our results as reported under GAAP. Some of these limitations are:

•Although depreciation and amortization are non-cash charges, the assets being depreciated and amortized may have to be replaced in the future, and Adjusted EBITDA does not reflect capital expenditure requirements for such replacements or for new capital expenditures;

•Adjusted EBITDA does not reflect stock-based compensation. Stock-based compensation expense has been, and will continue to be for the foreseeable future, a recurring expense in our business and an important part of our compensation strategy;

•Adjusted EBITDA does not reflect changes in, or cash requirements for, our working capital;

•Adjusted EBITDA excludes one-time non-routine items; and

•Other companies, including companies in our industry, may calculate Adjusted EBITDA differently, which reduces its usefulness as a comparative measure.

Because of these limitations, you should consider Adjusted EBITDA alongside other financial performance measures, including various cash flow metrics, net income (loss), and our other GAAP results.

The following table reconciles Adjusted EBITDA to net income (loss) from continuing operations, the most closely comparable GAAP financial measure, for the periods indicated (in thousands):


	Year Ended December 31,
	2025		2024
Net income (loss) from continuing operations	$	(69,518)	$	156,991
Less: Net loss attributable to noncontrolling interests	(10)		—
Net income (loss) from continuing operations attributable to common stockholders	$	(69,508)	$	156,991
Adjusted for:
Depreciation and amortization expenses	76,627		50,854
Interest expense, net of amortization of discounts and premiums	1,226		1,906
Interest income(1)	(47,672)		(34,712)
Income tax expense (benefit)	(33,375)		64,583
Stock-based compensation expense	566,177		50,134
Legal expenses(2)	9,500		9,281
Realized and unrealized (gains), net, on digital assets held for investment, other related investments and strategic investments	(24,816)		(9,464)
Realized (gains) losses on available-for-sale debt securities	—		(88)
Impairment losses on strategic investments	1,006		2,358
Restructuring expenses(3)	—		3,186
Acquisition-related costs(4)	535		1,054
Change in fair value of convertible debt, warrant liability, and embedded derivatives	71,422		(11,653)
Charitable contributions to Circle Foundation(5)	23,149		—
Losses on sale of long-lived assets	22		73
Foreign currency exchange loss	7,922		368
Adjusted EBITDA	$	582,215	$	284,871

(1)Reflects interest income from corporate cash and cash and cash equivalents balances. For the avoidance of doubt, this amount does not include the impact of reserve income.

(2)Reflects litigation expenses related to the FT Partners litigation, legal and settlement expenses related to legacy businesses, and legal fees and other costs related to the one-time establishment of new governance structures to comply with U.S. regulatory requirements. Refer to Note 22 to our Consolidated Financial Statements included elsewhere in this Form 10-K for a summary of certain of these legal matters.

(3)Reflects one-time restructuring expenses incurred in connection with our change in domicile from the Republic of Ireland to the State of Delaware.

(4)Reflects one-time legal and professional services costs related to the Hashnote acquisition.

(5)Reflects the charge related to the charitable contribution of shares of our Class A common stock for the benefit of Circle Foundation, a donor-advised fund. Refer to Note 15 to our Consolidated Financial Statements included elsewhere in this Form 10-K for further details on donations to Circle Foundation.

Liquidity and Capital Resources

We measure liquidity in terms of our ability to fund the cash requirements of our business operations, including our working capital and capital expenditure needs and other commitments. Our recurring working capital requirements relate mainly to our cash operating costs. Our capital expenditure requirements consist mainly of software development related to our product development and are primarily dependent on the expansion of our products as well as salaries and wages of employees associated with software development projects.

As of December 31, 2025, we had total liquidity sources of $2.3 billion, which consisted of $1.5 billion in Cash and cash equivalents and $823.0 million in Cash and cash equivalents segregated for corporate-held stablecoins. We believe our operating cash flows, together with our total liquidity sources on hand, will be sufficient to meet our working capital and capital expenditure requirements for a period of at least 12 months from the date of this Form 10-K. We expect our capital expenditures and working capital requirements to continue to increase in the immediate future as we continue to invest in the expansion of our products and services. Operating payments made in the form of corporate-held stablecoins are utilized and presented in the Consolidated Statements of Cash Flows in the same manner as if such payments were settled in cash. Refer to Note 2 Deposits from Stablecoin Holders in the Consolidated Financial Statements included elsewhere in this Form 10-K for additional details regarding the accounting for the use of corporate-held stablecoins in our Consolidated Statements of Cash Flows.

Cash and cash equivalents segregated for the benefit of stablecoin holders was $75.1 billion and $43.9 billion as of December 31, 2025 and December 31, 2024, respectively. This represents cash and cash equivalents maintained in segregated reserve accounts. We segregate the use of the assets underlying the customer funds to meet regulatory requirements and classify the assets as current based on their purpose and availability to fulfill our direct obligation under custodial funds due to stablecoin holders.

Off-Balance Sheet Arrangements

As of December 31, 2025 and December 31, 2024, we did not have any relationships with unconsolidated organizations or financial partnerships, such as structured finance or special purpose entities that would have been established for the purpose of facilitating off-balance sheet arrangements or other contractually narrow or limited purposes.

Composition of USDC Reserves

The table presented below summarizes the composition of the reserves backing USDC in circulation (which, as discussed in “Key operating indicators and financial results”, excludes access denied tokens and tokens allowed but not issued (for which we do not receive fiat funds)), the outstanding balance, and the average yield for the periods indicated. We use USDC in circulation in the table presented below to align with our presentation in “—Key operating indicators and financial results” and because reserves backing access denied tokens do not represent a material portion of USDC reserves. The amounts below differ from assets (cash and cash equivalents) segregated for the benefit of stablecoin holders, as these line items on our balance sheet include reserve assets backing access denied tokens and reserve assets backing EURC (which is held only in cash at banks and not material for the periods presented) and excludes the amount of reserve assets backing corporate-held USDC. In addition, the amounts differ due to timing and settlement differences, such as reserve income earned but not yet transferred to corporate cash and timing differences of cash receipts and payments related to the minting and redemption process.


	Year ended December 31,
(in millions, except percentages)	2025				2024
Asset Class	Fair Value		Average Yield		Fair Value		Average Yield
Cash	$	9,016	3.38	%	$	6,407	3.96	%
Circle Reserve Fund	$	66,317	4.15	%	$	37,514	5.09	%

As of December 31, 2025 and December 31, 2024, USDC reserves held as cash balances at banks (labeled as “Cash” in the table below) significantly exceeded the FDIC insurance limit of $250,000 per financial institution. As of December 31, 2025 and 2024, FDIC deposit insurance related to financial institutions where USDC reserves were held was limited to an aggregate amount of $1.5 million (representing six FDIC-insured financial institutions) and $1.3 million (representing five FDIC-insured financial institutions), respectively. The liabilities related to Deposits from stablecoin holders on the Consolidated Balance Sheets are not covered by FDIC deposit insurance.

As of December 31, 2025, approximately 88% of USDC reserves are held in the Circle Reserve Fund. The remaining amount is held in cash and distributed across several banks. We allocate USDC reserves across the different types of reserve assets in accordance with our reserve management standard in a manner designed to ensure available liquidity to meet redemption requests.

The Circle Reserve Fund is a government money market fund pursuant to Rule 2a-7 under the 1940 Act, holding a portfolio of U.S. Treasury securities with remaining maturities of three months or less, overnight U.S. Treasury repurchase agreements, and cash. As an SEC-registered Rule 2a-7 fund, the securities purchased by the Circle Reserve Fund are subject to the quality, diversification, and other requirements of Rule 2a-7 under the 1940 Act and other rules of the SEC. The Circle Reserve Fund is managed by BlackRock. The Circle Reserve Fund is only available to us, the only shareholder of the Circle Reserve Fund, and we have consent rights over changes to certain fundamental investment restrictions, such as the Circle Reserve Fund acting in ways that are not permitted under the 1940 Act or inconsistent with the disclosure in the fund’s prospectus.

The Circle Reserve Fund seeks to maintain a net asset value (“NAV”) of $1 per share. Our investment in the Circle Reserve Fund is not insured or guaranteed by the FDIC or any other government agency. BlackRock is not required to reimburse the fund for losses and is not required to provide financial support for the fund at any time. If the terms of the Circle Reserve Fund are modified to no longer suit our objectives, or if BlackRock manages the Circle Reserve Fund in a manner inconsistent with our reserve management standard, we may redeem our shares of the Circle Reserve Fund; we do not have other recourse (other than under the securities laws if BlackRock manages the Circle Reserve Fund in a manner inconsistent with the fund’s prospectus). Our determination of whether to invest and the amount of investment in the Circle Reserve Fund is governed by our reserve management standard. The Circle Reserve Fund has a $2 billion minimum investment requirement. However, we are not obligated to invest in the Circle Reserve Fund.

Information regarding the Circle Reserve Fund is available, and is updated daily, on BlackRock’s website under the USDXX ticker symbol (CUSIP: 09261A870), including the fund’s net asset value, assets held within the fund, the fund’s yield, and the yields of specific assets held within the fund. The composition of assets held within the fund will vary over time, and the assets within the fund could have different remaining maturities (but always three months or less) and provide different yields.

Sources of liquidity

Initial Public Offering (IPO)

In June 2025, we completed our IPO, in which we issued and sold 19.9 million shares of our Class A common stock, including the underwriters’ over-allotment option which was exercised in full, at a public offering price of $31.00 per share. The IPO resulted in net proceeds to us of $583.0 million after deducting the underwriting discounts and commissions and before deducting offering costs of $12.8 million, which were charged to additional paid-in capital as a reduction of the net proceeds received from the IPO.

Follow-on Public Offering

Debt

In March 2019, we entered into an agreement with an investment company to issue convertible promissory notes in connection with the acquisition of SeedInvest. We agreed to pay the holder the principal amount together with any interest on the unpaid principal balance for the notes beginning on the date of the agreement. The note had an original principal amount of $24.0 million and was convertible into Series E preferred stock subject to the conversion provisions in the agreement.

In September 2024, certain holders of our note converted their principal balance of $8.3 million into 524 thousand shares of Series E preferred stock at a conversion rate of $16.23 per share. Subsequent to the IPO, the remaining note is convertible into Class A common stock at a conversion rate of $16.23. The fair value of the convertible notes as of the conversion date was $15.0 million, of which $8.5 million was converted to Series E Preferred Stock and $6.5 million or $4.7 million after tax, was recorded to additional paid-in capital.

In October 2025, certain holders of our convertible notes converted their principal and accrued interest balance of $11.0 million into approximately 675 thousand shares of Class A common stock at a conversion rate of $16.23 per share. The fair value of the notes converted in October 2025 was approximately $88.8 million, substantially all of which was recorded to additional paid-in capital upon conversion.

In January 2026, the remaining holders of the Company’s convertible notes converted their principal and accrued interest balance of $7.5 million into approximately 465 thousand shares of Class A common stock at a conversion rate of $16.23 per share. The fair value of the notes converted in January 2026 was approximately $39.4 million substantially all of which was recorded to additional paid-in capital upon conversion.

Warrants

In April 2023, Circle entered into an agreement with a commercial counterparty to grant warrants to purchase up to 4.5 million common shares of a consolidated subsidiary that will be automatically converted one-for-one into shares of Class A common stock upon exercise. The warrants have an exercise price of $42.14 per share and an exercise period of ten years from the grant date. The warrants are subject to certain service conditions to be achieved over a two-year period and performance conditions to be achieved over a five-year period. As of December 31, 2025, 3.4 million of these warrants have expired. The vesting conditions for the remaining warrants have not been met, and none of the common shares associated with these warrants have been exercised or forfeited.

In August 2023, Circle entered into an agreement with a digital asset exchange to grant warrants to purchase up to 3.6 million common shares of a consolidated subsidiary that will be automatically converted one-for-one into shares of Class A common stock upon exercise. The warrants have an exercise price of $25.09 per share and an exercise period of five years from the grant date. The warrants are subject to a performance condition. This condition has not been met, and none of the common shares associated with these warrants have been exercised or forfeited or have expired.

In December 2024, Circle entered into an agreement with a commercial counterparty to grant warrants to purchase up to approximately 2.9 million shares of Class A common stock. The warrants have an exercise price of $22.71 per share and an exercise period of six years from the grant date. The vesting of the warrants is subject to certain conditions to be achieved over a three-year period. As of December 31, 2025, 0.9 million of these warrants have vested, and the counterparty elected to exercise 0.3 million of the warrants in February 2026 resulting in the net issuance of approximately 0.2 million shares of Class A common stock. None of the common shares associated with these warrants have been forfeited or expired.

Other commitments and contingencies

Our commitments for facilities' leases under non-cancelable operating leases amounted to $24.1 million as of December 31, 2025. As of the date of this Form 10-K, we did not have any other material commitments for cash expenditures.

We are involved in claims, lawsuits, government investigations, and proceedings arising from the ordinary course of our business. We record a contingent liability when we believe that it is both probable that a liability has been incurred, and that the amount can be reasonably estimated. Refer to Note 22 to our Consolidated Financial Statements included elsewhere in this Form 10-K for a summary of our contingent liabilities. Significant judgment is required to determine both probability and the estimated amount. Such legal proceedings are inherently unpredictable and subject to significant uncertainties, some of which are beyond our control. Should any of these estimates and assumptions change or prove to be incorrect, it could have a material impact on our results of operations, financial position, and cash flows. If we determine there is a reasonable possibility that we may incur a loss and the loss or range of loss can be estimated, we disclose the possible loss in the accompanying notes to the Consolidated Financial Statements to the extent material.

Cash flows

The following table summarizes our cash flows for the periods indicated:


	Year ended December 31,
	2025		2024
	(in millions)
Net cash provided by operating activities	$	542	$	345
Net cash (used in) provided by investing activities	$	(84)	$	186
Net cash provided by financing activities	$	31,936	$	19,450

Operating Activities

Net cash provided by operating activities was $542.1 million for the year ended December 31, 2025 compared to net cash provided by operating activities of $344.6 million for the year ended December 31, 2024, driven primarily by a $933.9 million increase in cash receipts from reserve income attributable to increased average reserve deposits relating to increased average USDC in circulation balances, offset by a $425.6 million increase in payment of distribution and transaction costs.

Investing Activities

Net cash used in investing activities was $84.0 million for the year ended December 31, 2025, driven primarily by $56.2 million capitalization of software development costs, $12.4 million purchase of long-lived assets, $7.7 million cash consideration related to the Hashnote acquisition, and $9.3 million purchase of strategic investments for the year ended December 31, 2025, compared to the net cash provided by investing activities of $186.3 million for the year ended December 31, 2024, driven primarily by $341.6 million of sales and maturities of available-for-sale securities, which was offset by $99.3 million purchase of available-for-sale securities, $39.1 million capitalization of software development costs, and $18.1 million purchase of long-lived assets for the year ended December 31, 2024.

Financing Activities

Net cash provided by financing activities was $31.9 billion for the year ended December 31, 2025, primarily reflecting $31.1 billion increase in net changes in deposits held for stablecoin holders primarily due to the increase in USDC in circulation, and $1.0 billion proceeds to us from issuance of common stock in connection with the IPO and the follow-on public offering, net of underwriting discounts and commissions and offering costs, offset by $269.7 million payment of withholding taxes on settlement of restricted stock units for the year ended December 31, 2025, compared with net cash provided by financing activities of $19.4 billion for the year ended December 31, 2024, primarily reflecting $19.5 billion increase in net changes in deposits held for stablecoin holders primarily due to the increase in USDC in circulation for the year ended December 31, 2024.

Critical Accounting Estimates

Our Consolidated Financial Statements and the related notes included elsewhere in this Form 10-K are prepared in accordance with generally accepted accounting principles in the U.S. ("U.S. GAAP"). The preparation of Consolidated Financial Statements also requires us to make estimates, judgment and assumptions that affect the reported amounts of assets, liabilities, stockholders' equity, revenue, costs, and expenses and related disclosures. We re-evaluate our estimates on an on-going basis. We base our estimates on historical experience and on various other assumptions that we believe to be reasonable under the circumstances. Actual results could differ significantly from our estimates. To the extent that there are differences between our estimates and actual results, our future financial statement presentation, financial condition, operating results, and cash flows will be affected.

We believe that the accounting policies described below involve a significant degree of judgment and complexity. Accordingly, we believe these are the most critical to aid in fully understanding and evaluating our consolidated financial condition and results of operations. For more information, see the notes to our Consolidated Financial Statements included elsewhere in this Form 10-K.

Stock-based compensation including valuation of common stock

We account for share-based awards under the recognition and measurement provisions of Accounting Standards Codification Topic 718, Stock-Based Compensation. In the absence of a public trading market prior to our IPO, our management and board of directors considered various objectives and subjective factors to determine the fair value of Circle’s common stock as of each grant date, including the value determined by a third-party valuation firm. These factors included, among other things, the following:

• our actual operating and financial performance and estimated trends and prospects for our future performance;

• the composition of, and changes to, our management team and board of directors;

• consideration of the lack of liquidity of the common stock as a private company;

• our stage of development, business strategy, and the material risks related to our business and industry;

• the valuations of publicly traded companies in the financial services sector, as well as recently completed mergers and acquisitions of peer companies;

• external market conditions affecting the financial services sector;

• the likelihood of achieving a liquidity event for the holders of our common stock;

• the prices, rights, preferences, and privileges of our convertible preferred stock relative to those of our common stock; and

• the prices of our convertible preferred stock and common stock sold to investors in arm’s-length transactions or offered to investors through a tender offer.

After the IPO, the Company measures stock-based compensation based on the publicly quoted market closing price of our common stock as reported on the New York Stock Exchange.

In September 2021, we initiated a program to grant employees restricted stock units (“RSUs”) as part of our compensation program. Prior to the IPO, the RSUs vest upon the satisfaction of both a service condition and a liquidity condition. Both the service and liquidity conditions must be met for the expense to be recognized. The fair value of RSUs is estimated based on the fair value of our common stock on the date of grant. Stock-based compensation expense related to the RSUs is recorded on a tranche-by-tranche basis over the requisite service period, when the liquidity condition is considered probable.

Our RSUs granted after the IPO vest upon the satisfaction of a service condition and do not have a corresponding liquidity condition. Expense related to these RSUs is recognized using the straight-line attribution method.

We use the Black-Scholes option pricing model (“Black-Scholes”) to estimate the grant-date fair value of option grants. The Black-Scholes model requires management to make a number of key assumptions, including expected volatility, expected term, risk-free interest rate, and expected dividends. The expected term represents the period of time that the options are expected to be outstanding and is estimated using the midpoint between the requisite service period and the contractual term of the option. The risk-free interest rate is estimated using the rate of return on U.S. Treasury notes with a life that approximates the expected term. Share-based compensation cost is measured at the grant date based on the fair value of the underlying common stock and is recognized as expense over the requisite service period.

The assumptions underlying these valuations represent management’s best estimates, which involve inherent uncertainties and the application of management judgment. As a result, if factors or expected outcomes change and our management uses significantly different assumptions or estimates, our stock-based compensation expense for future periods could be materially different, including as a result of adjustments to stock-based compensation expense recorded for prior periods.

Income taxes/uncertain tax positions

When recognizing the tax benefit, a tax position must be more likely than not to be sustained upon examination by taxing authorities, based on the technical merits of the position. The tax benefits recognized from such positions are then measured based on the largest benefit that has a greater than 50% likelihood of being realized upon settlement. We also recognize accrued interest and penalties related to unrecognized tax benefits as income tax expense.

We utilize the asset and liability method for computing our income tax provision. Deferred tax assets and liabilities are recognized for the future tax consequences attributable to temporary differences between the financial statement carrying amounts of existing assets and liabilities and their respective tax bases, as well as operating loss, capital loss, and tax credit carryforwards. Deferred tax assets and liabilities are measured using enacted tax rates expected to apply to taxable income in the years in which those temporary differences are expected to be recovered or settled. The effect on deferred tax assets and liabilities of a change in tax rates is recognized in income in the period of the enactment date. Management makes estimates, assumptions, and judgments to determine our provision for income taxes, deferred tax assets and liabilities, and any valuation allowance recorded against deferred tax assets. We assess the likelihood that our deferred tax assets will be recovered from future taxable income and, to the extent we believe that recovery is not more likely than not, we establish a valuation allowance.

For U.S. federal tax purposes, digital asset transactions are treated on the same tax principles as property transactions. We recognize a gain or loss when digital assets are exchanged for other property, in the amount of the difference between the fair market value of the property received and the tax basis of the exchanged digital asset. Receipts of digital assets in exchange for goods or services are included in taxable income at the fair market value on the date of receipt.

Business combinations, goodwill, and acquired intangible assets

Accounting for business combinations requires us to make significant estimates and assumptions. We use our best estimates and assumptions to accurately allocate the purchase consideration to the tangible and intangible assets acquired and liabilities assumed based on their estimated fair values, with the excess recorded to goodwill. Critical estimates in valuing certain intangible assets include, but are not limited to, future expected cash flows, expected asset lives, and discount rates. The amounts and useful lives assigned to acquired intangible assets impact the amount and timing of future amortization expense.

We use estimates, assumptions, and judgments when assessing the recoverability of goodwill and acquisition-related intangible assets. We test for impairment at least annually, during the fourth quarter or more frequently if a significant event or circumstance indicates impairment. In assessing goodwill and intangible assets for impairment, we first assess qualitative factors to determine whether it is necessary to perform the quantitative impairment test. In the qualitative assessment, we may consider factors such as economic conditions, industry and market conditions and developments, overall financial performance, and other relevant entity-specific events in determining whether it is more likely than not that the fair value of the reporting unit is less than the carrying amount. Should we conclude that it is more likely than not that the recorded goodwill and intangible assets amounts have been impaired, we would perform the impairment test. An impairment loss is recognized in earnings if the estimated fair value of a reporting unit or indefinite-lived intangible asset is less than the carrying amount of the reporting unit or intangible asset. Significant judgment is applied when goodwill and intangible assets are assessed for impairment. We also evaluate the estimated remaining useful lives of acquired intangible assets for changes in circumstances that warrant a revision to the remaining periods of amortization.

Loss contingencies

We are currently involved in various claims, regulatory and legal proceedings, and investigations of potential operating violations by regulatory oversight authorities. We regularly review the status of each significant matter and assess our potential financial exposure. If the potential loss from any claim, legal proceeding, or potential regulatory violation is considered probable and the amount can be reasonably estimated, we accrue a liability for the estimated loss. Significant judgment is required in both the determination of probability and whether an exposure is reasonably estimable. Our judgments are subjective and are based on the status of the legal or regulatory proceedings, the merits of our defenses, and consultation with in-house and outside legal counsel. Because of uncertainties related to these matters, accruals are based only on the best information available at the time. As additional information becomes available, we reassess the potential liability related to pending claims, litigation, or other violations and may revise our estimates. Due to the inherent uncertainties of the legal and regulatory process in the multiple jurisdictions in which we operate, our judgments may differ materially from the actual outcomes.

Convertible debt

We have elected the fair value option for our convertible debt. We believe the estimate of fair value of these financial instruments requires significant judgment. We measured the fair value of our convertible debt using the probability weighted “as converted” model, which uses both observable and unobservable inputs and reflects our best estimates of the assumptions a market participant would use to calculate fair value. The significant unobservable inputs used include, but are not limited to:

• timing and probability of liquidity and other events;

• discount rate; and

• fair value of the underlying stock prior to our IPO.

Under the fair value election, changes in fair value of convertible debt are reported as Other income (expense), net in the Consolidated Statements of Operations in each reporting period subsequent to the issuance. In the future, depending on the valuation approaches used and the expected timing and weighting of each, the inputs described above, or other inputs, may have a greater or lesser impact on our estimates of fair value. These inputs are based on historical performance of loans facilitated through our platform, as well as the consideration of market participant requirements. See Note 2 and Note 10 to our Consolidated Financial Statements included elsewhere in this Form 10-K for further information regarding the fair value measurements of convertible debt.

Item 7A. Quantitative And Qualitative Disclosures About Market Risk

Interest rate risk

Our results of operations are exposed to changes in interest rates, among other macroeconomic conditions. Interest rate risk is highly sensitive to many factors, including governmental monetary and tax policies, domestic and international economic and political considerations, and other factors beyond our control. Fluctuations in interest rates impact reserve return rates, such that a decrease in interest rates reduces reserve return rates and an increase in interest rates increases reserve return rates. Reserve return rate is a contributing factor to reserve income (the other being, primarily, USDC in circulation), which in turn is a contributor to distribution and transaction costs (the others being, primarily, the amount of USDC held on and off our and Coinbase’s platforms). As such, fluctuations in interest rates may result in changes in reserve income and in turn distribution costs. However, interest rates are only one contributor to reserve income, and the other—USDC in circulation—is inherently difficult to predict given the uncertainties in end-user and customer behavior. For example, although interest rates are positively correlated with the opportunity cost of holding USDC versus other financial instruments, given the utility of USDC as a means for the exchange of value, an increase in interest rates does not necessarily result in a decrease in USDC in circulation (and vice versa). Any relationship between interest rates and USDC in circulation is complex, highly uncertain, and unproven. As a result, while we are able to predict the impact of interest rate changes on the reserve return rate, given the uncertainties in end-user and customer behavior and interests and market dynamics, we are unable to accurately predict the impact of such changes on reserve income or distribution and transaction costs.

In the following analysis, we modeled the impact of hypothetical changes in interest rates on our reserve income and distribution and transaction costs for the following twelve-month period. We assume that the amount of USDC in circulation throughout this period is equal to the amount of USDC in circulation as of December 31, 2025, due to the inherent uncertainties described above in respect of predicting or forecasting USDC in circulation; such changes in interest rates occur on January 1, 2026 and are held constant through the period and impact all reserve assets equally; and our allocation of reserve assets do not change, as we are unable to predict the market and yield reactions to interest rate changes. The table below summarizes the hypothetical impact on our operating results for the following twelve-month period based on our internal modeling, which are subject to uncertainties and limitations as discussed above (in millions):


Change in interest rates from average yield of 3.64% in December 2025	Estimated change in reserve income		Estimated change in distribution and transaction costs
+200 bps	$	1,512	$	737
+100 bps	$	756	$	369
-100 bps	$	(756)	$	(369)
-200 bps	$	(1,512)	$	(737)


Change in interest rates from average yield of 4.33% in December 2024	Estimated change in reserve income		Estimated change in distribution and transaction costs
+200 bps	$	882	$	468
+100 bps	$	441	$	234
-100 bps	$	(441)	$	(234)
-200 bps	$	(882)	$	(468)

Foreign currency risk

Our reporting currency is the U.S. dollar and the functional currency of our international operations is its local currency. The assets and liabilities of each of our international operations are translated into dollars at exchange rates in effect at each balance sheet date. Revenues and expenses are translated using the average exchange rate for the relevant period. Equity transactions are translated using historical exchange rates. Decreases in the relative value of the U.S. dollar to other currencies may negatively affect revenues and other operating results as expressed in dollars. Foreign currency translation adjustments are accounted for as a component of accumulated other comprehensive income (loss) within stockholders’ equity (deficit). Gains or losses due to transactions in foreign currencies are included in Other income (expense), net in our Consolidated Statements of Operations. We have not engaged in hedging of foreign currency transactions to date, although we may choose to do so in the future. A 10.0% increase or decrease in current exchange rates would not have a material effect on our operating results or financial condition for the years ended December 31, 2025 and 2024.

ITEM 8. CONSOLIDATED FINANCIAL STATEMENTS AND SUPPLEMENTARY DATA


Index to Consolidated Financial Statements			Page
Report Of Independent Registered Public Accounting Firm (PCAOB ID No. 34)			85
Consolidated Balance Sheets			87
Consolidated Statements Of Operations			89
Consolidated Statements Of Comprehensive Income (Loss)			90
Consolidated Statements Of Changes In Redeemable Convertible Preferred Stock And Stockholders' (Deficit)/Equity			91
Consolidated Statements Of Cash Flows			92
Notes to Consolidated Financial Statements			94

REPORT OF INDEPENDENT REGISTERED PUBLIC ACCOUNTING FIRM

To the shareholders and the Board of Directors of Circle Internet Group, Inc.

Opinion on the Financial Statements

We have audited the accompanying consolidated balance sheets of Circle Internet Group, Inc. and subsidiaries (the "Company") as of December 31, 2025 and December 31, 2024, the related consolidated statements of operations, comprehensive income (loss), changes in redeemable convertible preferred stock and stockholders' (deficit)/equity, and cash flows for each of the three years in the period ended December 31, 2025, and the related notes collectively referred to as the "financial statements". In our opinion, the financial statements present fairly, in all material respects, the financial position of the Company as of December 31, 2025 and December 31, 2024, and the results of its operations and its cash flows for each of the three years in the period ended December 31, 2025, in conformity with accounting principles generally accepted in the United States of America.

Basis for Opinion

These financial statements are the responsibility of the Company's management. Our responsibility is to express an opinion on the Company's financial statements based on our audits. We are a public accounting firm registered with the Public Company Accounting Oversight Board (United States) (PCAOB) and are required to be independent with respect to the Company in accordance with the U.S. federal securities laws and the applicable rules and regulations of the Securities and Exchange Commission and the PCAOB.

We conducted our audits in accordance with the standards of the PCAOB. Those standards require that we plan and perform the audit to obtain reasonable assurance about whether the financial statements are free of material misstatement, whether due to error or fraud. The Company is not required to have, nor were we engaged to perform, an audit of its internal control over financial reporting. As part of our audits, we are required to obtain an understanding of internal control over financial reporting but not for the purpose of expressing an opinion on the effectiveness of the Company's internal control over financial reporting. Accordingly, we express no such opinion.

Our audits included performing procedures to assess the risks of material misstatement of the financial statements, whether due to error or fraud, and performing procedures that respond to those risks. Such procedures included examining, on a test basis, evidence regarding the amounts and disclosures in the financial statements. Our audits also included evaluating the accounting principles used and significant estimates made by management, as well as evaluating the overall presentation of the financial statements. We believe that our audits provide a reasonable basis for our opinion.

Critical Audit Matter

The critical audit matter communicated below is a matter arising from the current-period audit of the financial statements that was communicated or required to be communicated to the audit committee and that (1) relates to accounts or disclosures that are material to the financial statements and (2) involved our especially challenging, subjective, or complex judgments. The communication of critical audit matters does not alter in any way our opinion on the financial statements, taken as a whole, and we are not, by communicating the critical audit matter below, providing a separate opinion on the critical audit matter or on the accounts or disclosures to which it relates.

Deposits from Stablecoin Holders - Refer to Note 2 to the Financial Statements

Critical Audit Matter Description

Deposits from stablecoin holders are funds received from customers from the issuance of Circle stablecoins. This represents claims from the stablecoin holder associated with Circle's obligation to redeem stablecoins on a one-for-one basis. Circle stablecoins are the USDC and EURC payment stablecoins and are digital currencies issued natively on blockchain networks. All stablecoins issued and outstanding are backed by at least an equivalent amount of locally denominated reserve assets. Stablecoins not accounted for could result in the amount of claims from the stablecoin holder to be more than the amount of reserve assets.

We identified deposits from stablecoin holders as a critical audit matter due to the fact that the issuance and redemption of stablecoins requires complex computer code operations and smart contracts. The nature and extent of audit effort required to address the matter includes significant involvement of more experienced engagement team members and involvement of specialist.

How the Critical Audit Matter Was Addressed in the Audit

Our audit procedures related to deposits from stablecoin holders included the following, among others:

• We tested the effectiveness of controls over management's minting and burning process for the issuance and redemption of stablecoins.

• We tested effectiveness of controls over management’s reconciliation of reserve assets to stablecoin in circulation on approved blockchains.

• We utilized our proprietary audit tool and involved specialists to independently obtain evidence from public blockchains to test the completeness of stablecoins minted and outstanding by blockchain.

• We evaluated the reliability of audit evidence obtained from public blockchains

/s/ Deloitte & Touche LLP

New York, New York

March 9, 2026

We have served as the Company's auditor since 2023.

CIRCLE INTERNET GROUP, INC. AND SUBSIDIARIES

CONSOLIDATED BALANCE SHEETS


(in thousands, except share information)	December 31, 2025		December 31, 2024

ASSETS
Current assets:
Cash and cash equivalents	$	1,526,046	$	750,981
Cash and cash equivalents segregated for corporate-held stablecoins	822,963		294,493
Cash and cash equivalents segregated for the benefit of stablecoin holders	75,067,932		43,918,572

Accounts receivable, net	62,866		6,418
Stablecoins receivable, net	—		6,957
Prepaid expenses and other current assets	321,660		187,528
Total current assets	77,801,467		45,164,949
Non-current assets:
Restricted cash	2,792		3,558
Investments	84,265		84,114
Fixed assets, net	22,791		18,682
Digital assets	86,515		31,330
Goodwill	265,742		169,544
Intangible assets, net	411,146		331,394
Deferred tax assets, net	11,110		10,223
Other non-current assets	27,379		20,615
Total assets	$	78,713,207	$	45,834,409
LIABILITIES, REDEEMABLE CONVERTIBLE PREFERRED STOCK AND STOCKHOLDERS’ EQUITY
Current liabilities:
Deposits from stablecoin holders	$	74,912,567	$	43,727,363
Accounts payable and accrued expenses	360,609		287,007
Convertible debt, net of debt discount	36,821		—
Other current liabilities	18,398		16,597
Total current liabilities	75,328,395		44,030,967
Non-current liabilities:
Convertible debt, net of debt discount	—		40,717
Deferred tax liabilities, net	28,702		29,559
Warrant liability	—		1,591
Other non-current liabilities	25,337		21,281
Total non-current liabilities	54,039		93,148
Total liabilities	$	75,382,434	$	44,124,115


Commitments and contingencies (see Note 22)
Redeemable convertible preferred stock
Redeemable convertible preferred stock ($0.0001 par value, nil and 139.8 million shares issued and outstanding as of December 31, 2025 and December 31, 2024, respectively; aggregate liquidation preference of nil and $1.1 billion as of December 31, 2025 and December 31, 2024, respectively)	—		1,139,765
Stockholders’ equity
Class A common stock ($0.0001 par value; 2.5 billion and 300.0 million authorized as of December 31, 2025 and December 31, 2024, respectively; 223.6 million and 56.4 million issued and outstanding as of December 31, 2025 and December 31, 2024, respectively)	24		6
Class B common stock ($0.0001 par value; 500.0 million and nil authorized as of December 31, 2025 and December 31, 2024, respectively; 18.7 million and nil issued and outstanding as of December 31, 2025 and December 31, 2024, respectively)	2		—
Class C common stock ($0.0001 par value; 500.0 million and nil authorized as of December 31, 2025 and December 31, 2024, respectively; nil issued and outstanding as of December 31, 2025 and December 31, 2024)	—		—
Treasury stock at cost (4.7 million and 5.0 million shares held as of December 31, 2025 and December 31, 2024, respectively)	(2,721)		(2,877)
Additional paid-in capital	4,610,216		1,792,969
Accumulated deficit	(1,292,709)		(1,223,213)
Accumulated other comprehensive income	14,515		3,644
Total stockholders' equity attributable to common stockholders	3,329,327		570,529
Noncontrolling interests	1,446		—
Total stockholders’ equity	3,330,773		570,529
Total liabilities, redeemable convertible preferred stock and stockholders’ equity	$	78,713,207	$	45,834,409

The accompanying notes are an integral part of these Consolidated Financial Statements.

CIRCLE INTERNET GROUP, INC. AND SUBSIDIARIES

CONSOLIDATED STATEMENTS OF OPERATIONS


(in thousands, except per share information)	Year Ended December 31,
	2025		2024		2023
Revenue and reserve income
Reserve income	$	2,636,822	$	1,661,084	$	1,430,606
Other revenue	109,820		15,169		19,860
Total revenue and reserve income	2,746,642		1,676,253		1,450,466
Distribution, transaction and other costs
Distribution and transaction costs	1,661,549		1,010,811		719,806
Other costs	2,102		6,553		7,918
Total distribution, transaction and other costs	1,663,651		1,017,364		727,724
Operating expenses
Compensation expenses	844,878		263,410		296,055
General and administrative expenses	190,272		137,283		100,128
Depreciation and amortization expenses	76,627		50,854		34,887
IT infrastructure costs	36,638		27,109		20,722
Marketing expenses	25,718		17,326		36,544
Gain on sale of intangible assets	—		—		(21,634)
Digital assets losses (gains)	5,293		(4,251)		(13,488)
Total operating expenses	1,179,426		491,731		453,214
Operating income (loss) from continuing operations	(96,435)		167,158		269,528
Other income (expense), net	(6,458)		54,416		49,421
Net income (loss) from continuing operations before income taxes	(102,893)		221,574		318,949
Income tax expense (benefit)	(33,375)		64,583		47,400
Net income (loss) from continuing operations	(69,518)		156,991		271,549
Loss from operations of discontinued businesses	—		(1,324)		(3,987)
Net income (loss)	(69,518)		155,667		267,562
Less: Net loss attributable to noncontrolling interests	(10)		—		—
Net income (loss) attributable to common stockholders	$	(69,508)	$	155,667	$	267,562

Earnings (loss) per share attributable to common stockholders:
Basic earnings (loss) per common share attributable to common stockholders:
Continuing operations	$	(0.44)	$	0.33	$	0.95
Discontinued operations	—		(0.00)		(0.00)
Basic earnings (loss) per common share attributable to common stockholders	$	(0.44)	$	0.33	$	0.95

Diluted earnings (loss) per common share attributable to common stockholders:
Continuing operations	$	(0.44)	$	0.30	$	0.78
Discontinued operations	—		(0.00)		(0.00)
Diluted earnings (loss) per common share attributable to common stockholders	$	(0.44)	$	0.30	$	0.78

Weighted-average common shares used to compute earnings (loss) per share attributable to common stockholders:
Basic	158,699		54,413		47,265
Diluted	158,699		73,042		67,549

The accompanying notes are an integral part of these Consolidated Financial Statements.

CIRCLE INTERNET GROUP, INC. AND SUBSIDIARIES

CONSOLIDATED STATEMENTS OF COMPREHENSIVE INCOME (LOSS)


(in thousands)	Year Ended December 31,
	2025		2024		2023
Net income (loss) attributable to common stockholders	$	(69,508)	$	155,667	$	267,562
Other comprehensive income (loss):
Foreign currency translation adjustment, net of tax	10,904		(1,899)		1,460
Unrealized gain (loss) on available-for-sale debt securities, net of tax	—		(226)		(1,069)
Unrealized (loss) gain on convertible notes – credit risk, net of tax	(49)		840		1,182
Total other comprehensive income (loss), net of tax	10,855		(1,285)		1,573
Less: other comprehensive loss attributable to noncontrolling interests	(16)		—		—
Total other comprehensive income (loss) attributable to common stockholders	10,871		(1,285)		1,573
Comprehensive income (loss) attributable to common stockholders	$	(58,637)	$	154,382	$	269,135

The accompanying notes are an integral part of these Consolidated Financial Statements.

CIRCLE INTERNET GROUP, INC. AND SUBSIDIARIES

CONSOLIDATED STATEMENTS OF CHANGES IN REDEEMABLE CONVERTIBLE PREFERRED STOCK AND STOCKHOLDERS’ (DEFICIT)/EQUITY


	Temporary Equity				Permanent Equity
(in thousands)		Redeemable convertible preferred stock			Class A common stock			Class B common stock			Treasury Stock			Additional paid-in capital		Accumulated deficit		Accumulated other comprehensive income (loss)		Noncontrolling interests		Total Stockholders’ (Deficit)/Equity
		Shares	Amount		Shares	Amount		Shares	Amount		Shares	Amount
Balance as at December 31, 2022		139,238	$	1,131,260	48,391	$	5	—	$	—	4,960	$	(2,877)	$	1,399,612	$	(1,652,197)	$	3,356	$	—	$	(252,101)
Adoption of new accounting standards		—	—		—	—		—	—		—	—		—		(972)		—		—		(972)
Issuance of common stock upon exercise of stock options		—	—		990	—		—	—		—	—		1,037		—		—		—		1,037
Issuance of common stock in connection with asset acquisition		—	—		8,367	1		—	—		—	—		209,938		—		—		—		209,939
Vesting and issuance of common shares in connection with business combinations		—	—		1,246	—		—	—		—	—		—		—		—		—		—
Stock-based compensation		—	—		—	—		—	—		—	—		121,178		—		—		—		121,178
Other comprehensive income (loss), net of tax		—	—			—		—	—		—	—		—		—		1,573		—		1,573
Cancellation of treasury stock , net		—	—		(349)	—		—	—		—	—		(8,745)		—		—		—		(8,745)
Net income		—	—		—	—		—	—		—	—		—		267,562		—		—		267,562
Balance at December 31, 2023		139,238	$	1,131,260	58,645	$	6	—	$	—	4,960	$	(2,877)	$	1,723,020	$	(1,385,607)	$	4,929	$	—	$	339,471
Adoption of new accounting standards, net of tax		—	—		—	—		—	—		—	—		—		6,727		—		—		6,727
Issuance of common stock upon exercise of stock options		—	—		1,221	—		—	—		—	—		1,614		—		—		—		1,614
Vesting of restricted stock units and common share in connection with business combinations		—	—		1,447	—		—	—		—	—		—		—		—		—		—
Issuance of preferred stock for conversion of convertible notes, net		524	8,505		—	—		—	—		—	—		4,692		—		—		—		4,692
Stock-based compensation		—	—		—	—		—	—		—	—		63,643		—		—		—		63,643
Other comprehensive income (loss), net of tax		—	—		—	—		—	—		—	—		—		—		(1,285)		—		(1,285)
Net income		—	—		—	—		—	—		—	—		—		155,667		—		—		155,667
Balance at December 31, 2024		139,762	$	1,139,765	61,313	$	6	—	$	—	4,960	$	(2,877)	$	1,792,969	$	(1,223,213)	$	3,644	$	—	$	570,529
Issuance of common stock upon exercise of stock options		—	—		9,280	1		30	—		—	—		51,759		—		—		—		51,760
Issuance of common stock in connection with initial public offering, net of underwriting discounts and commissions and offering costs		—	—		19,900	2		—	—		—	—		570,127		—		—		—		570,129
Issuance of common stock in connection with follow-on public offering, net of underwriting discounts and commissions and offering costs		—	—		3,500	—		—	—		—	—		442,968		—		—		—		442,968
Issuance of common stock upon settlement of restricted stock units, net of shares withheld		—	—		7,086	—		31	—		—	—		216,682		—		—				216,682
Issuance of common stock in connection with acquisitions		—	—		3,906	—		—	—		—	—		92,294		—		—		—		92,294
Issuance of common stock and preferred stock upon exercise of warrants		45	737		1,130	—		—	—		—	—		854		—		—		—		854
Re-issuance of treasury stock to Circle Foundation		—	—		—	—		—	—		(268)	156		23,026		—		—		—		23,182
Conversion of redeemable convertible preferred stock to common stock in connection with initial public offering		(139,807)	(1,140,502)		139,807	14		—	—		—	—		1,140,488		—		—		—		1,140,502
Conversion of Class A common stock to Class B common stock in connection with initial public offering		—	—		(19,580)	(2)		19,580	2		—	—		—		—		—		—		—
Conversion of Class B common stock to Class A common stock		—	—		976	—		(976)	—		—	—		—		—		—		—		—
Conversion of convertible debt, net		—	—		675	—		—	—		—	—		89,049		—		—		—		89,049
Warrants in common stock		—	—		—	—		—	—		—	—		23,592		—		—		—		23,592
Vesting of restricted stock units, and common stock in connection with business combinations		—	—		293	—		—	—		—	—		—		—		—		—		—
Stock-based compensation		—	—		—	—		—	—		—	—		166,407		—		—		—		166,407
Other comprehensive income (loss), net of tax		—	—		—	—		—	—		—	—		—		—		10,871		(16)		10,855
Capital contribution from noncontrolling interest		—	—		—	—		—	—		—	—		—		—		—		1,472		1,472
Other		—	—		—	3		—	—		—	—		1		12		—		—		16
Net loss		—	—		—	—		—	—		—	—		—		(69,508)		—		(10)		(69,518)
Balance at December 31, 2025		—	$	—	228,286	$	24	18,665	$	2	4,692	$	(2,721)	$	4,610,216	$	(1,292,709)	$	14,515	$	1,446	$	3,330,773

CIRCLE INTERNET GROUP, INC. AND SUBSIDIARIES

CONSOLIDATED STATEMENTS OF CASH FLOWS


(in thousands)	Year Ended December 31,
	2025		2024		2023
Cash flows from operating activities
Net income (loss)	$	(69,518)	$	155,667	$	267,562
Adjustments to reconcile net income (loss) to net cash provided by (used in) operating activities:
Depreciation and amortization expense	76,627		50,854		34,887
Accretion of premium on available-for-sale debt securities	—		(2,268)		(7,738)
Realized and unrealized (gains) losses on digital assets	(18,223)		(12,878)		(13,010)
Change in fair value of convertible debt, warrant liability, and embedded derivatives	71,422		(10,024)		(25,343)
Digital assets received for services	(28,567)		(1,500)		(4,476)
Equity securities received for services	(3,302)		—		—
Deferred taxes	(2,153)		(2,806)		(32,893)
Realized and unrealized (gains) losses on available-for-sale debt securities and strategic investments	(294)		(434)		1,749
(Gains) losses on sale of long-lived assets	22		73		(21,521)
Foreign currency remeasurement losses (gains)	7,790		(565)		1,428
Stock-based compensation	566,177		50,134		107,999
Provision for warrants in common stock	23,592		—		—
Charitable contributions to Circle Foundation	23,149		—		—
Other non-cash items	4,936		887		3,383
Changes in operating assets and liabilities:
Accounts receivable	(39,379)		(4,569)		2,244
Prepaid expenses and other current assets	(146,502)		(21,764)		(51,161)
Accounts payable and accrued expenses	81,237		132,878		(123,833)
Other current liabilities	(4,885)		10,891		291
Net cash provided by operating activities	$	542,129	$	344,576	$	139,568
Cash flows from investing activities
Purchase of available-for-sale debt securities	—		(99,313)		(311,639)
Sale and maturities of available-for-sale securities	—		341,561		8,827,550
Cash acquired from acquisition of equity method affiliate	—		—		1,629
Sale and return of investments	1,426		739		1,107
Purchase of investments	(9,291)		(4,265)		(2,661)
Business combinations, net of cash acquired	(7,734)		—		—
Proceeds from sale of digital assets	196		4,805		27,301
Capitalization of software development costs	(56,200)		(39,098)		(32,862)
Purchase of long-lived assets	(12,432)		(18,128)		(654)
Net cash (used in) provided by investing activities	$	(84,035)	$	186,301	$	8,509,771
Cash flows from financing activities
Net changes in deposits held for stablecoin holders	31,139,764		19,452,147		(20,322,155)
Purchase of treasury stock	—		—		(8,745)
Proceeds from issuance of common stock in connection with initial public offering and follow-on public offering, net of underwriting discounts and commissions and offering costs	1,013,097		—		—
Payment of withholding taxes on settlement of restricted stock units	(269,732)		—		—
Capital contribution from noncontrolling interest	1,472		—		—
Capitalized transaction costs	—		(3,870)		—


(in thousands)	Year Ended December 31,
	2025		2024		2023
Proceeds from exercise of stock options	51,759		1,614		1,037
Net cash provided by (used in) financing activities	$	31,936,360	$	19,449,891	$	(20,329,863)
Effect of exchange rate changes on cash and cash equivalents, restricted and segregated cash	57,675		(7,099)		1,097
Unrealized (losses) gains on available-for-sale debt securities classified as cash equivalents, net of tax	—		(224)		(254)
Net increase (decrease) in cash and cash equivalents, restricted and segregated cash	32,452,129		19,973,445		(11,679,681)
Cash and cash equivalents, restricted and segregated cash at the beginning of the period	44,967,604		24,994,159		36,673,840
Cash and cash equivalents, restricted and segregated cash at the end of the period	$	77,419,733	$	44,967,604	$	24,994,159
Cash and cash equivalents, restricted and segregated cash consisted of the following:
Cash and cash equivalents	1,526,046

Circle Internet Group, Inc. 10-K