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UNITED STATES SECURITIES AND EXCHANGE COMMISSION

WASHINGTON, D.C. 20549

FORM 10-K


☑			ANNUAL REPORT PURSUANT TO SECTION 13 OR 15(d) OF THE SECURITIES EXCHANGE ACT OF 1934

For the fiscal year ended December 31, 2025


☐			TRANSITION REPORT PURSUANT TO SECTION 13 OR 15(d) OF THE SECURITIES EXCHANGE ACT OF 1934

For the transition period from to

Commission File Number 1-1023

S&P Global Inc.

(Exact name of registrant as specified in its charter)


New York			13-1026995
(State or other jurisdiction of incorporation or organization)			(I.R.S. Employer Identification No.)

55 Water Street

New York

10041

(Address of principal executive offices)

(Zip Code)

Registrant’s telephone number, including area code: 212-438-1000

Securities registered pursuant to Section 12(b) of the Act


Title of each class	Trading Symbol	Name of exchange on which registered
Common Stock — $1 par value	SPGI	New York Stock Exchange

Securities registered pursuant to Section 12(g) of the Act: None

Indicate by check mark if the Registrant is a well-known seasoned issuer, as defined in Rule 405 of the Securities Act.

Yes ☑ No ☐

Indicate by check mark if the Registrant is not required to file reports pursuant to Section 13 or Section 15(d) of the Act.

Yes ☐ No ☑

Indicate by check mark whether the Registrant (1) has filed all reports required to be filed by Section 13 or 15 (d) of the Securities Exchange Act of 1934 during the preceding 12 months (or for such shorter period that the Registrant was required to file such reports), and (2) has been subject to such filing requirements for the past 90 days.

Yes ☑ No ☐

Indicate by check mark whether the Registrant has submitted electronically every Interactive Date File required to be submitted pursuant to Rule 405 of Regulation S-T (§232.405 of this chapter) during the preceding 12 months (or for such shorter period that the Registrant was required to submit such files).

Yes ☑ No ☐

Indicate by check mark whether the Registrant is a large accelerated filer, an accelerated filer, a non-accelerated filer, a smaller reporting company or an emerging growth company. See the definitions of “large accelerated filer,” “accelerated filer,” “smaller reporting company,” and “emerging growth company” in Rule 12b-2 of the Exchange Act. (Check one):

☑

Large accelerated filer

☐

Accelerated filer

☐

Non-accelerated filer

☐

Smaller reporting company

☐

Emerging growth company

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If an emerging growth company, indicate by check mark if the registrant has elected not to use the extended transition period for complying with any new or revised accounting standards provided pursuant to Section 13(a) of the Exchange Act. ☐

Indicate by check mark whether the registrant has filed a report on and attestation to its management’s assessment of

the effectiveness of its internal control over financial reporting under Section 404(b) of the Sarbanes-Oxley Act (15 U.S.C.

7262(b)) by the registered public accounting firm that prepared or issued its audit report. ☑

If securities are registered pursuant to Section 12(b) of the Act, indicate by check mark whether the financial statements of the registrant included in the filing reflect the correction of an error to previously issued financial statements. ☐

Indicate by check mark whether any of those error corrections are restatements that required a recovery analysis of incentive-based compensation received by any of the registrant’s executive officers during the relevant recovery period pursuant to §240.10D-1(b). ☐

Indicate by check mark whether the registrant is a shell company (as defined in Rule 12b-2 of the Exchange Act).

Yes ☐ No ☑

The aggregate market value of voting stock held by non-affiliates of the Registrant as of the last business day of the second fiscal quarter ended June 30, 2025, was $161.0 billion, based on the closing price of the common stock as reported on the New York Stock Exchange of $527.29 per common share. For purposes of this calculation, it is assumed that directors, executive officers and beneficial owners of more than 10% of the registrant outstanding stock are affiliates. The number of shares of common stock of the Registrant outstanding as of January 30, 2026 was 298.8 million shares, excluding 7.2 million outstanding common shares held by the Markit Group Holdings Limited Employee Benefit Trust.

Part III incorporates information by reference from the definitive proxy statement for the 2026 annual meeting of shareholders.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS


	PART I
Item		Page
1	Business	7
1A.	Risk Factors	11
1B.	Unresolved Staff Comments	29
1C.	Cybersecurity	29
2	Properties	29
3	Legal Proceedings	29
4	Mine Safety Disclosures	29
	Information about our Executive Officers	31

	PART II

5	Market for the Registrant's Common Equity, Related Stockholder Matters and Issuer Purchases of Equity Securities	33
6	[Reserved]	35
7	Management’s Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations	36
7A.	Quantitative and Qualitative Disclosures about Market Risk	73
8.	Consolidated Financial Statements and Supplementary Data	74
9.	Changes in and Disagreements with Accountants on Accounting and Financial Disclosure	125
9A.	Controls and Procedures	125
9B.	Other Information	125
9C.	Disclosure Regarding Foreign Jurisdictions that Prevent Inspections	125

	PART III

10	Directors, Executive Officers and Corporate Governance	127
11	Executive Compensation	127
12	Security Ownership of Certain Beneficial Owners and Management and Related Stockholder Matters	127
13	Certain Relationships and Related Transactions, and Director Independence	127
14	Principal Accountant Fees and Services	127

	PART IV

15	Exhibits and Financial Statement Schedules	130
	Schedule II — Valuation and Qualifying Accounts	131
	Exhibit Index and Exhibits	132
16	Form 10-K Summary	139
Signatures		139

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FORWARD-LOOKING STATEMENTS

This report contains “forward-looking statements,” as defined in the Private Securities Litigation Reform Act of 1995. These statements, which express management’s current views concerning future events, trends, contingencies or results, appear at various places in this report and use words like “anticipate,” “assume,” “believe,” “continue,” “estimate,” “expect,” “forecast,” “future,” “intend,” “plan,” “potential,” “predict,” “project,” “strategy,” “target” and similar terms, and future or conditional tense verbs like “could,” “may,” “might,” “should,” “will” and “would.” For example, management may use forward-looking statements when addressing topics such as: the outcome of contingencies; future actions by regulators; changes in the Company’s business strategies and methods of generating revenue; the development and performance of the Company’s services and products; the expected impact of acquisitions and dispositions; the Company’s effective tax rates; the Company’s cost structure, dividend policy, cash flows or liquidity; and the anticipated separation of Mobility into a standalone public company.

Forward-looking statements are subject to inherent risks and uncertainties. Factors that could cause actual results to differ materially from those expressed or implied in forward-looking statements include, among other things:

•worldwide economic, financial, political, and regulatory conditions (including slower GDP growth or recession, restrictions on trade (e.g., tariffs), instability in the banking sector and inflation), and factors that contribute to uncertainty and volatility (e.g., supply chain risk), geopolitical uncertainty (including military conflict), natural and man-made disasters, civil unrest, public health crises (e.g., pandemics), and conditions that result from legislative, regulatory, trade and policy changes, including from the U.S. administration;

•the volatility and health of debt, equity, commodities, energy and automotive markets, including credit quality and spreads, the composition and mix of credit maturity profiles, the level of liquidity and future debt issuances, equity flows from active to passive, fluctuations in average asset prices in global equities, demand for investment products that track indices and assessments and trading volumes of certain exchange traded derivatives;

•the demand and market for credit ratings in and across the sectors and geographies where the Company operates;

•the Company’s ability to maintain adequate physical, technical and administrative safeguards to protect the security of confidential information and data, and the potential for a system or network disruption that results in regulatory penalties and remedial costs or improper disclosure of confidential information or data;

•the outcome of litigation, government and regulatory proceedings, investigations and inquiries;

•concerns in the marketplace affecting the Company’s credibility or otherwise affecting market perceptions of the integrity or utility of independent credit ratings, benchmarks, indices and other services;

•the level of merger and acquisition activity in the United States and abroad;

•the level of the Company’s future cash flows and capital investments;

•the effect of competitive products (including those incorporating artificial intelligence ("AI")) and pricing, including the level of success of new product developments and global expansion;

•the impact of customer cost-cutting pressures;

•a decline in the demand for our products and services by our customers and other market participants;

•our ability to develop new products or technologies, to integrate our products with new technologies (e.g., AI), or to compete with new products or technologies offered by new or existing competitors;

•the introduction of competing products (including those developed by AI) or technologies by other companies;

•our ability to protect our intellectual property from unauthorized use and infringement, including by others using AI technologies, and to operate our business without violating third-party intellectual property rights, including through our own use of AI in our products and services;

•our ability to attract, incentivize and retain key employees, especially in a competitive business environment;

•our ability to successfully navigate key organizational changes;

•the continuously evolving regulatory environment in Europe, the United States and elsewhere around the globe affecting each of our businesses and the products they offer, and our compliance therewith;

•the Company’s exposure to potential criminal sanctions or civil penalties for noncompliance with foreign and U.S. laws and regulations that are applicable in the jurisdictions in which it operates, including sanctions laws relating to countries such as Iran, Russia and Venezuela, anti-corruption laws such as the U.S. Foreign Corrupt Practices Act and the U.K. Bribery Act of 2010, and local laws prohibiting corrupt payments to government officials, as well as import and export restrictions;

•the Company’s ability to make acquisitions and dispositions and successfully integrate the businesses we acquire;

•consolidation of the Company’s customers, suppliers or competitors;

•the ability of the Company, and its third-party service providers, to maintain adequate physical and technological infrastructure;

•the Company’s ability to successfully recover from a disaster or other business continuity problem, such as an earthquake, hurricane, flood, civil unrest, protests, military conflict, terrorist attack, outbreak of pandemic or contagious diseases, security breach, cyber attack, data breach, power loss, telecommunications failure or other natural or man-made event;

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•the impact on the Company’s revenue and net income caused by fluctuations in foreign currency exchange rates;

•the impact of changes in applicable tax or accounting requirements on the Company;

•the separation of Mobility not being consummated within the anticipated time period or at all;

•the ability of the separation of Mobility to qualify for tax-free treatment for U.S. federal income tax purposes;

•any disruption to the Company’s business in connection with the proposed separation of Mobility;

•any loss of synergies from separating the businesses of Mobility and the Company that adversely impact the results of operations of both businesses, or the companies resulting from the separation of Mobility not realizing all of the expected benefits of the separation; and

•following the separation of Mobility, the combined value of the common stock of the two publicly-traded companies not being equal to or greater than the value of the Company’s common stock had the separation not occurred.

The factors noted above are not exhaustive. The Company and its subsidiaries operate in a dynamic business environment in which new risks emerge frequently. Accordingly, the Company cautions readers not to place undue reliance on any forward-looking statements, which speak only as of the dates on which they are made. The Company undertakes no obligation to update or revise any forward-looking statement to reflect events or circumstances arising after the date on which it is made, except as required by applicable law. Further information about the Company’s businesses, including information about factors that could materially affect its results of operations and financial condition, is contained in the Company’s filings with the SEC, including Item 1A, Risk Factors in this Annual Report on Form 10-K.

RISK FACTORS SUMMARY

Our business is subject to risks and uncertainties that, if realized, could materially and adversely affect our business, financial condition and results of operations, which are discussed more fully in Item 1A, Risk Factors in this Annual Report on Form 10-K. These risks include, but are not limited to, the following:

•Our size, scale and role in the global markets increases our exposure to cyber attacks and other cyber-security risks.

•Our inability to innovate and compete with new or enhanced products and services of our competitors could have a material adverse effect on our business, financial condition or results of operations.

•Our inability to successfully develop, adapt, or implement new and improved processes and technology could materially adversely impact our business, financial condition or results of operations.

•Increased availability of free or relatively inexpensive information sources may materially reduce demand for our products and services.

•AI presents new and evolving risks, and our approach to AI may not be successful.

•Our use of open source software could result in litigation or impose unanticipated restrictions on our ability to commercialize our products and services.

•Our inability to adequately obtain, protect and maintain our intellectual property and other proprietary rights could impact our competitive position.

•We have been, and may in the future be, subject to intellectual property disputes, which are costly to defend and could harm our business and operating results.

•We rely heavily on network systems and the Internet and any failures or disruptions may adversely affect our ability to serve our customers.

•Our operations and infrastructure may malfunction or fail.

•Exposure to litigation and government and regulatory proceedings, investigations and inquiries could have a material adverse effect on our business, financial condition or results of operations.

•Changes and increased enforcement in the global privacy, data localization, operational resilience and data protection legislative, regulatory, and commercial environments in which we operate may materially and adversely impact our ability to collect, compile, use, and publish data, require us to disclose information about our security environment.

•Future legislation, regulatory reform or policy changes, especially abrupt changes, could have a material adverse effect on our business, financial condition or results of operations.

•Increasing regulation of our Ratings business in the U.S., Europe and elsewhere can increase our costs of doing business.

•Our Indices and Energy businesses are subject to a global evolving regulatory landscape, which has and may continue to cause increased operating obligations, exposure, compliance risk and costs of doing business.

•Our international business activities must comport with international trade restraints, including economic sanctions regulations administered by the U.S. Treasury Department’s Office of Foreign Assets Control.

•We may become subject to liability or face reputational harm due to our offerings.

•Changes in the volume of securities issued and traded in domestic and/or global capital markets, asset levels and flows into investment products, high interest rates, changes in interest rates and volatility in the financial markets, and volatility in the energy and commodity markets impact our business, financial condition or results of operations.

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•Inability to attract, retain or train key qualified personnel or to navigate key management transitions could have a material adverse effect on our business, financial condition or results of operations.

•The planned separation of our Mobility business into an independent, publicly traded company is contingent upon the satisfaction of a number of conditions, may not be completed on the currently contemplated timeline, or at all, and may not achieve the intended benefits.

•Our acquisitions, divestitures and other strategic transactions may not produce anticipated results.

•The markets in which we operate are intensely competitive, and our inability to successfully compete could materially adversely affect our business, financial condition or results of operations.

•A significant increase in operating costs and expenses could have a material adverse effect on our profitability.

•Consolidation of customers, reduced staffing levels of customers or reduced spending by customers could have a material adverse effect on our business, financial condition or results of operations.

•We rely on the products and services of other suppliers, including certain data, software and service suppliers, for many aspects of our business.

•Our inability to successfully recover should we, our third-party service providers or our clients experience a disaster or other business continuity problem could cause material financial loss, loss of human capital, regulatory actions, reputational harm, damaged client relationships or legal liability.

•Our reputation, credibility, and brand are key assets and competitive advantages of our Company and our business, financial condition or results of operations could be materially and adversely affected if we are negatively perceived in the marketplace.

•We are exposed to multiple risks associated with the global nature of our operations, which could have a material adverse effect on our reputation, business, financial condition or results of operations.

•Outsourcing certain aspects of our business could result in material financial loss, increased costs, regulatory actions and penalties, reputational harm, unauthorized access to our systems, system or network disruption, or improper disclosure of confidential information.

•Sustainability and energy expansion matters pose operational, commercial and regulatory risks.

•Our expansion into and investments in new and growing markets may not be successful, which could adversely impact our business, financial condition and results of operations.

•Our indebtedness, or a downgrade to our credit ratings, could adversely affect our business, financial condition, and results of operations.

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PART I

Item 1. Business

Overview

S&P Global Inc. (together with its consolidated subsidiaries, “S&P Global,” the “Company,” the “Registrant,” “we,” “us” or “our”) is a global, diversified, and highly differentiated provider of benchmarks, data, analytics and workflow solutions in the global capital, energy and commodity, and automotive markets. The capital markets include asset managers, investment banks, commercial banks, insurance companies, exchanges, trading firms and issuers; the energy and commodity markets include producers, consumers, traders and intermediaries within energy, chemicals, shipping, metals, carbon and agriculture; and the automotive markets include manufacturers, suppliers, dealerships, service shops and customers. We serve our global customers through a broad range of products and services available through both third-party and proprietary distribution channels. We were incorporated in December of 1925 under the laws of the state of New York.

Our Businesses

Our operations consist of five businesses: S&P Global Market Intelligence (“Market Intelligence”), S&P Global Ratings (“Ratings”), S&P Global Energy (“Energy”), S&P Global Mobility (“Mobility”) and S&P Dow Jones Indices (“Indices”). As of May 2, 2023, we completed the sale of S&P Global Engineering Solutions (“Engineering Solutions”), a provider of engineering standards and related technical knowledge, and the results are included through that date. For a discussion on the competitive conditions and regulatory environment associated with our businesses, see “MD&A – Segment Review” contained in Item 7, Management’s Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations, in this Annual Report on Form 10-K.

On April 29, 2025, we announced that our Board of Directors decided to pursue a full separation of our Mobility segment, creating a new publicly traded company. The transaction, which would be implemented through the spin-off of shares of the new company to S&P Global shareholders, is expected to be tax-free for U.S. federal income tax purposes for S&P Global shareholders and is expected to be completed mid-2026, subject to the satisfaction of customary legal and regulatory requirements and approvals.

Market Intelligence

Market Intelligence is a global provider of multi-asset-class data and analytics integrated with purpose-built workflow solutions. Market Intelligence’s portfolio of capabilities are designed to help trading and investment professionals, government agencies, corporations and universities track performance, generate alpha, identify investment ideas, understand competitive and industry dynamics, perform valuations and manage credit risk. Key customers served by Market Intelligence include investment managers, investment banks, private equity firms, insurance companies, commercial banks, corporations, professional services firms, government agencies and regulators.

Market Intelligence includes the following business lines:

•Data, Analytics & Insights — a desktop product suite that provides data, analytics and third-party research for global finance and corporate professionals, which includes the Capital IQ platforms (which are inclusive of S&P Capital IQ Pro, Capital IQ, Office and Mobile products) and a broad range of research, reference data, market data, derived analytics and valuation services covering both the public and private capital markets, delivered through flexible feed-based or API delivery mechanisms. This also includes issuer solutions for public companies, a range of products for the maritime & trade market, data and insight into Financial Institutions, the telecoms, technology and media space as well as energy transition and sustainability and supply chain data analytics;

•Enterprise Solutions — software and workflow solutions that help our customers manage and analyze data; identify risk; reduce costs; and meet global regulatory requirements. The portfolio includes industry leading financial technology solutions like Wall Street Office, Enterprise Data Manager, Information Mosaic, and iLevel. Our Global Markets Group offering delivers bookbuilding platforms across multiple assets including municipal bonds, equities and fixed income; and

•Credit & Risk Solutions — commercial arm that sells Ratings’ credit ratings and related data and research, advanced analytics, and financial risk solutions which includes subscription-based offerings, RatingsXpress®, RatingsDirect® and Credit Analytics.

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Subscription revenue at Market Intelligence is primarily derived from distribution of data, valuation services, analytics, third party research, and credit ratings-related information through both feed and web-based channels. Subscription revenue also includes software and hosted product offerings which provide maintenance and continuous access to our platforms over the contract term. Recurring variable revenue at Market Intelligence represents revenue from contracts for services that specify a fee based on, among other factors, the number of trades processed, assets under management, or the number of positions valued. Non-subscription revenue at Market Intelligence is primarily related to certain advisory, pricing conferences and events, and analytical services.

Ratings

Ratings is an independent provider of credit ratings, research, and analytics. Credit ratings are forward-looking opinions about an issuer’s relative creditworthiness. They are one of several tools investors can use when making decisions about purchasing bonds and other fixed income investments. Our ratings express our opinion about the ability and willingness of an issuer, such as a corporation or state or city government, to meet its financial obligations in full and on time. Our credit ratings can also relate to the credit quality of an individual debt issue, such as a corporate or municipal bond, and the relative likelihood that the issue may default.

With offices in over 25 countries around the world, Ratings is an important part of the world’s financial infrastructure and has played a leading role for over 150 years in providing investors with information and independent benchmarks for their investment and financial decisions as well as access to the capital markets. The key constituents Ratings serves are investors, corporations, governments, municipalities, commercial and investment banks, insurance companies, asset managers, and other debt issuers.

As the capital markets continue to evolve, Ratings is well-positioned to capitalize on opportunities, driven by continuing regulatory changes, through its global network, well-established position in corporate markets and strong investor reputation.

Ratings disaggregates its revenue between transaction and non-transaction. Transaction revenue primarily includes fees associated with:

•ratings related to new issuance of corporate and government debt instruments, as well as structured finance debt instruments; and

•bank loan ratings.

Energy

Energy is a leading independent provider of information and benchmark prices for the energy and commodity markets. Energy provides essential price data, analytics, industry insights and software & services, enabling the energy and commodity markets to perform with greater transparency and efficiency. The energy and commodity markets include producers, consumers, traders and intermediaries within energy, chemicals, shipping, metals, carbon and agriculture.

Energy includes the following business lines:

•Energy & Resources Data & Insights — includes data, news, insights, and analytics for petroleum, gas, power & renewables, petrochemicals, metals & steel, agriculture, and other commodities;

•Price Assessments — includes price assessments and benchmarks, and forward curves;

•Upstream Data & Insights — includes exploration & production data and insights, software and analytics; and

•Advisory & Transactional Services — includes consulting services, conferences, events and global trading services.

Energy’s revenue is generated primarily through the following sources:

•Subscription revenue — primarily from subscriptions to our market data and market insights (price assessments, market reports and commentary and analytics) along with other information products and software term licenses;

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•Sales usage-based royalties — primarily from licensing our proprietary market price data and price assessments to commodity exchanges; and

•Non-subscription revenue — conference sponsorship, consulting engagements, events, and perpetual software licenses.

Mobility

Mobility is a leading provider of solutions serving the full automotive value chain including vehicle manufacturers (Original Equipment Manufacturers or OEMs), automotive suppliers, mobility service providers, retailers, consumers, and finance and insurance companies.

Mobility includes the following business lines:

•Dealer — includes analytics to predict future buyers, targeted marketing, and vehicle history data to allow people to shop, buy, service and sell used cars;

•Manufacturing — includes insights, forecasts and advisory services spanning the entire automotive value chain, from product planning to marketing, sales and the aftermarket; and

•Financial — includes reports and data feeds to support lenders and insurance companies.

Mobility’s revenue is generated primarily through the following sources:

•Subscription revenue — Mobility’s core information products provide critical information and insights to all global OEMs, most of the world’s leading suppliers, and the majority of the top North American dealerships. Mobility operates across both the new and used car markets. Mobility provides data and insight on future vehicles sales and production, including detailed forecasts on technology and vehicle components; supplies car makers and dealers with market reporting products, predictive analytics and marketing automation software; and supports dealers with vehicle history reports, used car listings and service retention services. Mobility also sells a range of services to financial institutions, to support their marketing, insurance underwriting and claims management activities; and

•Non-subscription revenue — Transactional sales of data that are non-cyclical in nature – and that are usually tied to underlying business metrics such as OEM marketing spend or safety recall activity – as well as consulting and advisory services.

Indices

Indices is a global index provider maintaining a wide variety of valuation and index benchmarks for investment advisors, wealth managers and institutional investors. Indices’ mission is to provide transparent benchmarks to help with decision making, collaborate with the financial community to create innovative products, and provide investors with tools to monitor world markets.

Indices derives revenue from asset-linked fees when investors direct funds into its proprietary designed or owned indexes, sales-usage based royalties of its indices, as well as data subscription arrangements. Specifically, Indices generates revenue from the following sources:

•Investment vehicles — asset-linked fees such as ETFs and mutual funds, that are based on the S&P Dow Jones Indices’ benchmarks that generate revenue through fees based on assets and underlying funds;

•Exchange traded derivatives — generate sales usage-based royalties based on trading volumes of derivatives contracts listed on various exchanges;

•Index-related licensing fees — fixed or variable annual and per-issue asset-linked fees for over-the-counter derivatives and retail-structured products; and

•Data and customized index subscription fees — fees from supporting index fund management, portfolio analytics and research.

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Segment and Geographic Data

The relative contribution of our reportable segments to operating revenue, expenses, operating profit, long-lived assets and geographic area for the three years ended December 31, 2025 are included in Note 12 – Segment and Geographic Information to the consolidated financial statements under Item 8, Consolidated Financial Statements and Supplementary Data, in this Annual Report on Form 10-K.

Human Capital

As of December 31, 2025, we had approximately 44,500 permanent employees located worldwide, including around 26,200 in Asia, 11,050 in the U.S. and Canada, 6,200 in Europe, Middle East, and Africa, and 1,050 in Latin America.

The health, safety and well-being of our people working around the globe is a corporate priority, and our facilities worldwide follow internally and externally audited occupational health and safety policies.

Board Oversight & Management Implementation of Human Capital Strategy

Our Board of Directors and Company management view effective human capital management as critical to the Company’s ability to execute its strategy. As a result, the Board of Directors and the Compensation and Leadership Development Committee oversee and regularly engage with our CEO, Chief People Officer, and other members of senior leadership on a broad range of people topics, including talent attraction, development and leadership succession planning; compensation and benefits; workplace culture, health, safety and well-being; and employee engagement and retention. At the management level, our Chief People Officer is responsible for leading the development and execution of the Company’s human capital management strategy, also referred to as our “People” strategy, working together with other senior leaders across the Company.

Competitive Compensation Programs

Offering market competitive and performance-driven compensation is key to our recruitment, talent management and retention strategies. As a result, management regularly assesses employee feedback, competitor research, and market data to ensure our programs remain competitive. Our compensation program consists of a mix of:

•Annual salary where base pay is determined by role, scope, external market rate and internal parity relative to geographic location. Recognizes level of proficiency and skill exhibited as compared to role requirements.

•Annual bonus structured as a cash reward, which serves as our main pay-for-performance vehicle through annual programs. Recognizes achievement against individual, team, and group performance.

•Equity awards for our strategic leaders, granted to retain key talent and incentivize individual achievements and broader organizational goals. Recognizes contributions that positively influence strategic growth, operational alignment, and product innovation.

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We also focus on the well-being of our people by offering competitive health and retirement benefits globally, as well as a variety of well-being programs.

Retention and Engagement

In order to attract and retain the high-quality talent needed to execute our long-term strategy, we foster a performance-driven workplace culture that promotes employee engagement, satisfaction and professional development. We invite employee feedback through a variety of channels for open communication and engagement, including small group employee round-table discussions with our business leaders and members of our Board of Directors and employee engagement surveys. We also invest in our employees’ professional development by providing a wide array of global training and learning programs to help employees expand their knowledge, skills and experience, including technology training, career coaching and leadership development programs.

Available Information

S&P Global’s investor relations website provides access to Annual Reports on Form 10-K, Proxy Statements, Quarterly Reports on Form 10-Q, current reports on Form 8-K, earnings releases and amendments to those reports filed or furnished pursuant to Section 13(a) or 15(d) of the Exchange Act. For online access, go to http://investor.spglobal.com. Requests for printed copies, free of charge, can be e-mailed to investor.relations@spglobal.com or mailed to Investor Relations, S&P Global Inc., 55 Water Street, New York, NY 10041-0001. Interested parties can also call Investor Relations toll-free at 866-436-8502 (domestic callers) or 212-438-2192 (international callers). The information on our website is not, and shall not be deemed to be part hereof or incorporated into this or any of our filings with the Securities and Exchange Commission (“SEC”).

In addition, these filing are available to the public on the Commission’s website through their EDGAR filing system at www.sec.gov.

Item 1A. Risk Factors

The following risk factors and other information included in this annual report on Form 10-K should be carefully considered. The risks and uncertainties described below are not the only ones we face. These risks could materially and adversely affect our business, financial condition and results of operations. Additional risks and uncertainties not presently known to us or which we currently believe to be immaterial may also impair our business operations.

We are a global, diversified, and highly differentiated provider of benchmarks, data, analytics and workflow solutions in the global capital, energy and commodity, and automotive markets. The capital markets include asset managers, investment banks, commercial banks, insurance companies, exchanges, trading firms and issuers; the energy and commodity markets include producers, consumers, traders and intermediaries within energy, chemicals, shipping, metals, carbon and agriculture; and the automotive markets include manufacturers, suppliers, dealerships, service shops and customers. Certain risk factors are applicable to certain of our individual segments while other risk factors are applicable Company-wide.

Cybersecurity, Technology and Innovation Risks

Our size, scale and role in the global markets increases our exposure to cyber attacks and other cyber-security risks. Our information systems and networks and those of our third-party service providers are exposed to risks related to cybersecurity and protection of confidential information, including material non-public information, which could have a material adverse effect on our business, financial condition or results of operations.

•Our operations rely on the secure processing, storage and transmission of confidential, sensitive and other types of data and information by our information systems and networks and those of our third-party service providers, including our vendors, data partners and distribution partners. Cyber threats continue to evolve and are increasingly difficult to detect and successfully defend against. As a result, cyber threats have in the past and may in the future defeat the measures that we or our third-party service providers take to anticipate, detect, avoid, or mitigate such threats.

•Our businesses often have access to material non-public information concerning the Company’s customers, including sovereigns, public and private companies, and other third parties around the world, the unauthorized disclosure of which could affect the trading markets for such customers’ securities and could damage such customers’ competitive positions. Some of our own products and services also include material non-public information that could affect trading markets. Unauthorized disclosure of this information as a result of cyber attacks and other unauthorized occurrences on our information systems and networks could cause our customers to lose faith in our ability to protect confidential information and therefore cause customers to cease doing business with us.

•The cyber threats we and our third-party service providers (including our vendors, data partners and distribution partners) face are rapidly evolving and are becoming increasingly sophisticated and include denial of service attacks, ransomware, spyware, misinformation, phishing/smishing/vishing attacks, business compromise attacks,

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typosquatting, automated attacks, employee errors, negligence or malfeasance, the use of malicious codes or worms, payment fraud, and other unauthorized occurrences on, or conducted through, our or our third-party service providers’ (including our vendors’, data partners’ and distribution partners’) information systems and networks, originating from a wide variety of sources, including criminals, terrorists, state-sponsored actors, financially motivated actors, internal actors, and external service providers. The cyber risks the Company faces range from cyber attacks common to most industries, to more sophisticated and targeted attacks, including attacks carried out by state-sponsored actors, intended to obtain unauthorized access to certain information or information systems or networks due in part to our prominence in the global marketplace, such as our ratings on debt issued by sovereigns and corporate issuers, our impending methodology changes in our benchmarks businesses, or the composition of our indices. Our third-party service providers, including our vendors, data partners and distribution partners, are also the subject of a variety of cyber attacks, including attacks carried out by state-sponsored actors.

•We and our third-party service providers, including our vendors, data partners and distribution partners, experience cyber attacks, data breaches and other cyber threats of varying degrees on a regular basis. The volume of such attacks, breaches and threats has increased over the years and we expect that volume to continue to increase. Breaches of our or our third-party service providers’ (including our vendors’, data partners’ and distribution partners’) information systems and networks may cause material interruptions or malfunctions in our or such third-party’s websites, applications or data processing, or may compromise the confidentiality and integrity of material information regarding us, our business or our customers. Although we have not experienced a cyber attack or data breach that has had a material adverse effect on us to date, we may experience such an event in the future.

•In the ordinary course of business, we are exposed to vulnerabilities in widely deployed third-party software. While such vulnerabilities have not resulted in a material adverse effect on the Company to date, they require us to devote time and resources to remediation on a regular basis. Notwithstanding our efforts, we may suffer a material adverse effect on our business, financial condition or results of operations resulting from such vulnerabilities in the future.

•Misappropriation, improper modification, destruction, corruption or unavailability of our data and information, including personal data, due to cyber incidents, attacks or other security breaches, or the perception of such an occurrence, could damage our brand and reputation, result in litigation, regulatory actions, sanctions or other statutory penalties, or lead to loss of customer confidence in our security measures and reliability. While such incidents have not had a material impact on the Company to date, future incidents could materially harm our ability to retain customers and gain new ones, result in financial losses that are either not insured against or not fully covered through any insurance maintained by us, and lead to increased expenses related to addressing or mitigating the risks associated with any such incidents. We may be required to expend significant resources to mitigate the impact of any errors, interruptions, delays or cessations of service and we may have insufficient recourse against our third-party service providers, including our vendors, data partners and distribution partners. Additionally, our failure to timely or accurately communicate cyber incidents to relevant parties, including as a result of a failure of our third-party service providers, including our vendors, data partners and distribution partners, to inform us of incidents impacting their information systems or networks in a timely manner could result in regulatory or litigation risk, and reputational harm.

•We devote significant resources to maintain and regularly update our systems and processes that are designed to protect the security of our information systems, software, networks and other technology assets and the confidentiality, integrity and availability of information belonging to the enterprise and our customers and employees, and we expect to continue to expend significant additional resources to bolster these protections. However, such measures cannot provide absolute security and may be circumvented or become obsolete, and additional measures that we take to prevent or mitigate cyber incidents may be expensive or ineffective. Additionally, fragmented security tooling could create visibility gaps and increase the risk of missed threats and slower response.

•We conduct cyber due diligence during the acquisition process; however, following the completion of acquisitions, we from time to time identify weaknesses and vulnerabilities in acquired entities’ information systems and networks, which expose us to unexpected liabilities or make our own information systems or networks more vulnerable to a cyber attack.

•Any of the foregoing could have a material adverse effect on our business, financial condition or results of operations.

Our inability to innovate and compete with new or enhanced products and services of our competitors could have a material adverse effect on our business, financial condition or results of operations.

We operate in highly competitive markets that continuously change to adapt to customer needs. We could experience material threats to our businesses from new or existing competitors due to the rapidly changing environment in which we operate. In order to maintain a competitive position, we invest in innovation, new offerings and enhancements, including new ways to deliver our products and services. These new or enhanced offerings resulting from our investments sometimes do not, and may not in the future, achieve market acceptance, profit or the level of profitability that we expect or have experienced historically. Our inability to innovate and compete with new or enhanced products and services of our competitors could have a material adverse effect on our business, financial condition or results of operations.

Our inability to successfully develop, adapt, or implement new and improved processes and technology could materially adversely impact our business, financial condition or results of operations.

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•The rapid change of technology is a key feature of all of the markets in which we operate. To succeed in the future, we will need to deploy improved processes and technology to innovate, design, develop, assemble, test, market, and support new products and enhancements to our existing products in a timely and cost-effective manner.

•Innovation and constant development in support of new products and enhancements to existing products calls for the implementation of new and improved processes and technologies that require related change management efforts. While we employ a certain level of internal and external resources to mitigate the risks associated with implementing process and technology improvements, new processes and technologies that are still in development tend to be subject to more risks than established processes and technologies. Additionally, certain of our new processes require manual data entry or collection before they can be automated, which subjects them to greater risk of human error. We may also face unexpected challenges in execution that may require more management attention than expected, thus diverting management time and energy from other businesses. The foregoing and other unforeseen factors could also result in additional commitments of financial resources and business disruptions.

•We have transitioned an important portion of our technology to a cloud-based infrastructure, which is complex, time consuming, and involves substantial expenditures. Our utilization of cloud services is critical to developing and providing products and services to our customers, scaling our business for future growth, maintaining data and otherwise operating our business; any such implementation involves risks inherent in the conversion to a new system, including loss of information and potential disruption to our normal operations. We may discover material deficiencies in our design or implementation or maintenance of the new cloud-based systems that could adversely affect our business. Disruptions to either the outsourced systems or the communication links between us and the outsourced supplier negatively affect our ability to operate our data systems, and impair our ability to provide services to our customers.

•Enhancing existing products and developing new products often requires effective collaboration across various divisions, functions and business lines of the Company. Ineffective or insufficient collaboration across divisions, functions and business lines decreases our ability to expand geographically, enhance products, innovate, increase sales, promote brand awareness (and can lead to brand confusion) and may result in a material adverse effect on our business, financial condition or results of operations.

Increased availability of free or relatively inexpensive information sources may materially reduce demand for our products and services and could have a material adverse effect on our business, financial condition or results of operations.

In recent years, more public sources of free or relatively inexpensive information have become available, and advances in public cloud computing and open source software are expected to continue. Given the importance of data to our products and services, the continued growth of publicly available free or relatively inexpensive information could materially reduce demand for our products and services. Demand could also be materially reduced as a result of cost-cutting initiatives at certain companies and organizations that choose to use publicly available free or relatively inexpensive information over our products and services. Although we believe our products and services are enhanced by our analysis, tools, delivery mechanisms and applications, if a large number of smaller customers or a critical number of larger customers choose to use public sources of free or relatively inexpensive information as a substitute for our products or services, it could have a material adverse effect on our business, financial condition or results of operations.

Artificial Intelligence ("AI") presents new and evolving risks, and our approach to AI may not be successful, which could materially and adversely affect our business, financial condition or results of operations.

AI is a rapidly evolving technology that is fundamentally changing the way data is gathered, produced, protected, licensed, processed, and consumed. Given the importance of data to our products and services, AI continues to be an increasingly important part of our business and industry. While we have established a Company-wide AI strategy to drive our approach to data protection, licensing and AI integration in our processes, products and services, AI creates a number of evolving risks and opportunities and can exacerbate other risks, including those described herein:

•In order to remain competitive, we have made significant investments in various AI initiatives. There is no guarantee that these investments will lead to the development of products and services that achieve market acceptance, profit or the level of profitability that we expect or have experienced historically. The continued enhancement of AI within our products, services and processes depends in part on our ability to attract and retain talented employees with critical AI and data science experience, which is dependent on a number of factors, including prevailing market conditions and compensation packages offered by companies competing for the same talent. While we offer competitive salary and benefit packages, intense competition for talent with critical AI and data science experience is driving difficulties in attracting and retaining skilled employees. If we are less successful in our recruiting efforts, or if we are unable to attract, retain or train key qualified personnel, our ability to develop and deliver on our investments in our various AI initiatives may be adversely affected.

•The number of approaches to integrating and commercializing AI is currently large, and many of those approaches may fail to gain market acceptance or become obsolete as AI continues to evolve. At this time, we are unable to predict which AI offerings will ultimately be successful. In addition, the development, testing and deployment of AI systems

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requires continued investment and may materially increase the cost profile of our offerings due to the nature of the computing cost involved in such systems. Notwithstanding our investments, our products and services may become less marketable or less competitive, or potentially obsolete if either our approach to integrating AI into our products and services fails to gain market acceptance or our approach to protecting our data and intellectual property is ultimately inadequate.

•Our competitors are deploying AI in ways that could materially reduce demand for our products and services (for example, by deploying AI in ways that make collection and processing of information relatively inexpensive or free or by leveraging AI to build products and services that compete with our products and services). The emerging availability of “off-the-shelf” AI models may also increase the ability of new and existing competitors to develop technology and applications which may compete with our products and services.

•Our ability to produce and develop products and services with AI capabilities is dependent upon the products and services of other suppliers, including certain data, software and service suppliers. Our products and services with AI capabilities may rely on third-party AI providers for certain capabilities and infrastructure. If any such providers were to limit, discontinue or materially alter the terms of our access, we may be unable to obtain comparable data from other sources in a timely or cost-effective manner, or at all. To the extent we rely on third-party AI models, the providers may discontinue such models or their model capabilities may become insufficient or obsolete. While such issues have not materially adversely affected us to date, the future occurrence of any such issue could have a material adverse effect on our business, financial condition or results of operations.

•AI presents risks and challenges that could affect its adoption, including social and ethical risks. For example, our products and services with AI capabilities may contain errors or defects that lead to privacy concerns, accuracy issues, unintended biases or discriminatory outputs. Errors or defects may exist during any part of a product’s life cycle and may persist notwithstanding testing and/or other quality assurance practices. Inadequate internal oversight or testing within the Company increases the risk that such errors or defects may not be detected or mitigated. Failing to properly remediate any social or ethical issues that may arise in our offerings may result in material brand or reputational harm, competitive harm, legal liability or loss of public confidence, or a material reduction to the marketability or competitiveness of our products and services. In addition, our failure to continue development and adoption of ethical and transparent policies and procedures related to AI could negatively impact our reputation and customer confidence. Any of these social, ethical or operational issues could materially and adversely affect our business, financial condition or results of operations.

•AI is being utilized by malign actors to launch increasingly sophisticated cyber attacks against us and our third-party service providers (including our vendors, data partners and distribution partners), which, if successful, could have a material adverse effect on our business, financial condition or results of operations. While we believe we have appropriate policies, processes and internal controls to ensure the stability of our information technology, provide security from unauthorized access to our systems and maintain business continuity, our business could be subject to significant disruption and our business, financial condition or results of operations could be materially and adversely affected by unanticipated system failures, data corruption or unauthorized access to our systems.

•The AI landscape is complex and rapidly evolving, and new and enhanced laws and regulations (or inadequate laws or regulations), novel application of existing laws to AI technology, governmental or regulatory scrutiny, litigation and ethical concerns could materially and adversely impact our ability to protect our data and intellectual property, to develop and offer products and services that effectively use AI, to compete with other AI products or services, to improve efficiency of existing products or services through the effective use of AI to remain competitive, or to incorporate AI in our internal operations, or could materially increase our burden and cost of research, development and regulatory compliance.

•We do not yet know whether intellectual property laws and regulations in the jurisdictions in which we operate will enable us to effectively protect our intellectual property rights from unintended use by AI. Third parties could also use our data with AI tools to create their own insights and potentially supplant our products and services. We are also subject to a variety of evolving laws and regulations regarding AI in an increasing number of jurisdictions. Further, global AI legislation, regulatory, enforcement, and policy activity is rapidly and continually evolving and creating a complex regulatory compliance environment. Such measures increase our operating costs and require significant management time and attention and may result in negative publicity and subject us to significant costs that may harm our business, including fines or damages as well as demands or orders that we modify or cease existing business practices. The integration of AI in our products and services may increase the risks of improper processing of personal data, further exacerbating such risks.

•AI technologies used in our products and processes may incorporate or reproduce third-party content in their outputs, which may expose us to risks associated with infringing, misappropriating or otherwise violating others’ intellectual property rights, including the trademarks, copyrights, patents and other intellectual property rights of third parties, including from our competitors or nonpracticing entities which may expose us to protracted and expensive litigation and may materially and adversely affect our business going forward. We may also be unable to protect our data from unintended use or access by third-party AI systems.

•Our approach for managing our clients’ use of our data is influenced by AI. Our approach must effectively balance protecting our data and enabling our clients to leverage our data for their needs. Given the evolving nature of AI, at this time we are unable to predict if our approach will be successful. If our approach is ultimately inadequate, we could materially dilute the value of our data and/or lose significant market share or revenue.

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Any of the foregoing factors could materially and adversely affect our business, reputation, financial condition or results of operations.

Our use of open source software could result in litigation or impose unanticipated restrictions on our ability to commercialize our products and services.

We use open source software in our technology, most often as small components within a larger product or service. Open source code is also contained in some third-party software we rely on. The terms of many open source licenses are ambiguous and have not been interpreted by United States (“U.S.”) or other courts. These licenses could be construed in a manner that imposes unanticipated conditions or restrictions on our ability to commercialize our products and services, licenses the software on unfavorable terms or requires us to seek licenses from third parties to offer our products and services, or requires us to re-engineer our products and services or take other remedial actions, any of which could have a material adverse effect on our business, financial condition or results of operations. We could also be subject to suits by parties claiming breach of the terms of licenses, which could be costly for us to defend.

Our inability to adequately obtain, protect and maintain our intellectual property and other proprietary rights could impact our competitive position.

•We consider many of our products and services to be proprietary, and our success depends, in part, on protecting our intellectual property, proprietary information, and technology. We rely on a variety of measures to maintain, protect and enforce our intellectual property portfolio, including trademark and patent protection, trade secret laws, legal misappropriation doctrines, confidentiality procedures and contractual restrictions, all of which provide only limited protection. In particular, such measures may not prevent infringement, violation, misuse or misappropriation of our intellectual property rights or proprietary or confidential information. For example, we routinely face unauthorized use of our indices and price assessments, and our efforts to stop such uses require significant time and expense, and are not always successful.

•We have filed for patents in the U.S. and in certain international jurisdictions, but such protections can be expensive and may not be available in all countries in which we operate or in which we seek to enforce such rights, or may be difficult to enforce in practice. We have filed for trademark registrations and participated in trademark enforcement and trademark oppositions in the U.S. and certain international jurisdictions to protect our brand, good will and reputation. These efforts cannot ensure registrations will be issued, our trademark rights will be enforced, or violations of our trademark rights will be appropriately resolved. We do business in a number of countries included on the Priority Watch List and/or Watch Lists maintained by the Office of the United States Trade Representative which are currently thought to afford less protection to intellectual property rights generally than some other jurisdictions. The lack of strong patent and other intellectual property protection in jurisdictions in which we operate increases our vulnerability regarding unauthorized disclosure or use of our intellectual property and undermines our competitive position. In addition, even in jurisdictions where there are strong protections for intellectual property rights, our ability to enforce our intellectual property rights may be impacted by the number of competitors or other third parties attempting to infringe or misappropriate our intellectual property, and the time and resources required to defend against such unauthorized uses.

•There can be no assurance that any future patent, trademark, or other intellectual property registrations will be issued for our pending or future applications or that any of our current or future patents, trademarks or other intellectual property rights will be valid, enforceable, sufficiently broad in scope, provide adequate protection of our technology or other proprietary rights, or provide us with any competitive advantage. Any additional investment in protecting our intellectual property rights through additional trademark, patent or other intellectual property filings could be time consuming and expensive, both in terms of application and maintenance costs. We make business decisions about whether and where to seek patent, copyright, and trademark protection for a particular technology and when to rely upon trade secret protection, and the approach we select may ultimately prove to be inadequate. Businesses we acquire may also have intellectual property portfolios which increase the complexity of managing our intellectual property portfolio and protecting our competitive position. Failure to obtain, protect and maintain our intellectual property adequately could harm the value of, and revenue generated by, such assets as well as harm our reputation and affect our ability to compete effectively.

•We cannot guarantee that we will be successful in maintaining, protecting, or enforcing the confidentiality of our trade secrets or that our confidentiality and non-disclosure agreements for such trade secrets will provide sufficient protection of our trade secrets, know-how, or other proprietary information in the event of any unauthorized use, misappropriation, or other disclosure. Enforcing a claim that a party illegally disclosed or misappropriated a trade secret or know-how is difficult, fact-intensive, expensive, and time-consuming, and the outcome is unpredictable. In addition, trade secrets and know-how can be difficult to protect and some courts inside and outside the U.S. are less willing or unwilling to protect trade secrets and know-how. Further, these agreements do not prevent our competitors from independently developing product or service offerings that are substantially equivalent or superior to our offerings. If any of our trade secrets were to be lawfully obtained or independently developed by a competitor or other third party, we would have no right to prevent them from using that technology or information to compete with us, and

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our competitive position would be materially and adversely harmed. The loss of trade secret protection could make it easier for third parties to compete with our products and services by copying functionality, and pervasive data leakage could render our capabilities redundant over time.

•Our products and services contain intellectual property delivered through a variety of digital and other media. Our ability to achieve anticipated results depends in part on our ability to defend our intellectual property rights against infringement and misappropriation. Our business, financial condition or results of operations could be materially and adversely affected by inadequate or changing legal and technological protections for intellectual property and proprietary rights in jurisdictions and markets in which we operate.

•Our products also contain intellectual property of third-party sources. From time to time, we face claims by third parties that we violated their intellectual property rights, which may result in termination of the relevant source agreement, litigation or reputational damage, or may require us to enter into royalty and licensing agreements on unfavorable terms or to stop selling or redesign affected products.

•Any of the above factors could materially and adversely affect our business, reputation, financial condition or results of operations.

We have been, and may in the future be, subject to intellectual property disputes, which are costly to defend and could harm our business and operating results.

Our success depends, in part, on our ability to operate our business without infringing, misappropriating or otherwise violating third-party intellectual property rights. We have been, and may in the future be, subject to claims and litigation alleging that we or our products or services infringe, misappropriate or otherwise violate others’ intellectual property rights, including the trademarks, copyrights, patents and other intellectual property rights of third parties, including from our competitors or nonpracticing entities. We may also learn of possible infringement, misappropriation or other violation of our trademarks, copyrights, patents and other intellectual property. Patent and other intellectual property litigation may be protracted and expensive, and the results are difficult to predict and may result in significant settlement costs or payment of substantial damages. Furthermore, a successful claimant could secure a judgment that requires us to stop offering some products or services or prevents us from conducting our business as we have historically done or may desire to do in the future. We might also be required to seek a license and pay royalties for the use of such intellectual property, which may not be available on commercially acceptable terms, or at all. Alternatively, we may be required to modify our products and services, which could require significant effort and expense and may ultimately not be successful.

We rely heavily on network systems and the Internet and any failures or disruptions may adversely affect our ability to serve our customers.

•Our products and services are delivered electronically, and our customers rely on our ability to process transactions rapidly and deliver substantial quantities of data on computer-based networks. Our customers also depend on the continued capacity, reliability, resiliency, and security of our electronic delivery systems, our websites and the Internet.

•Our ability to deliver our products and services electronically may be impaired due to infrastructure or network failures, malicious or defective software, human error, natural disasters, service outages at cloud or third-party Internet providers or increased government regulation. Delays in our ability to deliver our products and services electronically may harm our reputation and result in the loss of customers.

Our operations and infrastructure may malfunction or fail, which could have a material adverse effect on our business, financial condition or results of operations.

•Our ability to conduct business may be materially and adversely impacted by a disruption in the infrastructure that supports our businesses and the communities in which we are located, including New York City, the location of our headquarters, and major cities worldwide in which we have offices and operations.

•This may include a disruption involving physical or technological infrastructure used by us or third parties with or through whom we conduct business, whether due to human error, natural disasters, power loss, telecommunication failures, cyber attacks, data breaches, break-ins, sabotage, intentional acts of vandalism, acts of terrorism, political unrest, war or otherwise. Technology failures could also result from inadequate implementation or poor governance. Our efforts to secure and plan for potential disruptions of our major operating systems are not always successful, and future disruptions could have a material adverse effect on our business, financial condition or results of operations.

•We rely on our information technology environment and certain critical databases, systems, applications and services (e.g. Amazon Web Services (“AWS”)) to support key product and service offerings. We believe we have appropriate policies, processes and internal controls to ensure the stability of our information technology, provide security from unauthorized access to our systems and maintain business continuity, but our business could be subject to significant disruption and our business, financial condition or results of operations could be materially and adversely affected by unanticipated system failures, data corruption or unauthorized access to our systems.

•We have at times experienced outages and other disruptions due to internal system or human errors and could in the future be subject to outages or other disruptions due to similar errors. While we have taken steps to address these

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errors, we may experience outages or other disruptions in the future, and such outages or disruptions could have a material adverse effect on our business, financial condition or results of operations.

•The physical or technological infrastructure used by us or our third-party service providers can become obsolete or restrictive, unavailable, incompatible with future versions of our products, fail to be comprehensive or accurate, or fail to operate effectively, and our business could be adversely affected if we are unable to timely or effectively replace it.

•We also do not have fully redundant systems for most of our smaller office locations and low-risk systems, and our disaster recovery plan does not include restoration of non-essential services. If a disruption occurs in one of our locations or systems and our personnel in those locations or those who rely on such systems are unable to utilize other systems or communicate with or travel to other locations, such persons’ ability to service and interact with our customers may suffer.

•We cannot predict with certainty all of the adverse effects that could result from our failure, or the failure of a third party, to efficiently address and resolve these delays and interruptions. A disruption to our operations or infrastructure could have a material adverse effect on our business, financial condition or results of operations.

Legal and Regulatory Risks

Exposure to litigation and government and regulatory proceedings, investigations and inquiries could have a material adverse effect on our business, financial condition or results of operations.

•In the normal course of business, both in the U.S. and abroad, we and our subsidiaries are defendants in numerous legal proceedings and are often the subject of government and regulatory proceedings, investigations and inquiries, as discussed under Item 7, Management’s Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations, in this Annual Report on Form 10-K and in Note 13 – Commitments and Contingencies to the consolidated financial statements under Item 8, Consolidated Financial Statements and Supplementary Data, in this Annual Report on Form 10-K, and we face the risk that additional proceedings, investigations and inquiries will arise in the future.

•Many of these proceedings, investigations and inquiries regularly relate to the activity of our Ratings, Indices, and Energy businesses. In addition, various government and self-regulatory agencies frequently make inquiries and conduct investigations into our compliance with applicable laws and regulations, including those related to our regulated products and services, antitrust matters, and other matters, such as environmental, social and governance (“ESG”) matters. From time to time, we also face proceedings, investigations or inquiries related to tax matters. Enhancements to our products and services combined with evolving regulation requires us to continuously evaluate our regulatory and compliance obligations, and government and self-regulatory agencies may conduct investigations to determine whether our products and services subject us to additional regulations. Any of these proceedings, investigations or inquiries impose additional expenses on the Company, require the attention of senior management, and could ultimately result in adverse judgments, damages, fines, penalties, activity restrictions, reduced demand for our products and services, or negative impacts on our cash flows, which could have a material adverse effect on our business, financial condition or results of operations.

•In view of the uncertainty inherent in litigation, government and regulatory enforcement matters, and changing political sentiments, we cannot predict the eventual outcome of the matters we are currently facing or the timing of their resolution, or in most cases reasonably estimate what the eventual judgments or impact of activity restrictions may be. The outcome of matters we are currently facing or that we may face in the future could have a material adverse effect on our business, financial condition or results of operations.

•As litigation or the process to resolve pending matters progresses, as the case may be, we continuously review the latest information available and assess our ability to predict the outcome of such matters and the effects, if any, on our consolidated financial condition, cash flows, business and competitive position, which sometimes requires us to record liabilities in the consolidated financial statements.

•Risks relating to legal proceedings may be heightened in foreign jurisdictions that lack the legal protections or liability standards comparable to those that exist in the U.S. In addition, new laws and regulations have been and may continue to be enacted that establish lower liability standards, shift the burden of proof or relax pleading requirements, thereby increasing the risk of successful litigations against the Company in the U.S. and in foreign jurisdictions. These litigation risks are often difficult to assess or quantify and could have a material adverse effect on our business, financial condition or results of operations.

•We may not have adequate insurance or reserves to cover these risks, and the existence and magnitude of these risks often remains unknown for substantial periods of time and could have a material adverse effect on our business, financial condition or results of operations.

Changes and increased enforcement in the global privacy, data localization, operational resilience, and data protection legislative, regulatory, and commercial environments in which we operate may materially and adversely impact our ability to collect, compile, use, and publish data, require us to disclose information about our security environment, and could have a material adverse effect on our business, financial condition or results of operations.

•We, and certain types of information we collect, compile, store, use, process, transfer, publish and sell, are subject to laws and regulations governing the protection of personal and sensitive information in the various jurisdictions in

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which we operate. We move data across national borders to conduct our operations, and consequently, are subject to a variety of evolving laws and regulations regarding privacy, data protection, and data security in an increasing number of jurisdictions. Further, global privacy, data localization, data maintenance, data transfer, operational resilience (e.g., the E.U. Digital Operational Resilience Act), data protection legislation, regulatory, enforcement, and policy activity are rapidly and continually evolving and creating a complex regulatory compliance environment. There is also increasing public concern among certain privacy and data protection advocates, government regulators, litigators, and the press regarding, and resulting increasing regulations of, privacy, data, and consumer protection issues. Certain laws and regulations to which we are subject pertain to personally identifiable information (“PII”) relating to individuals. Such laws and regulations constrain the collection, use, processing, storage, and transfer of PII, and impose other obligations with which we must comply. Costs and adaptation of our business practices to comply with evolving laws and regulations governing and restricting the processing and transfer of certain data is, and we expect will continue to be, significant. In addition, such measures, as well as any associated inquiries or investigations or any other government actions, increase our operating costs and require significant management time and attention, and may result in negative publicity and subject us to significant costs that may harm our business, including fines or damages as well as demands or orders that we modify or cease existing business practices. The risks of inadvertent disclosure of personal data can increase with the introduction of new and complex technologies, further exacerbating such risks.

•There has been increased public attention regarding the use and transfer of personal information and regulations intended to strengthen data protection, information security and consumer and personal privacy. The law in these areas continues to develop and the changing nature and interpretation of these laws by courts and enforcement actions, including in jurisdictions such as the U.S. (including in an increasing number of U.S. states), the European Union (the “EU”), the People’s Republic of China and India, could have a significant impact on our processing of employee, commercial, vendor, and customer data, and in turn, our business practices.

•These laws and regulations are wide-ranging in scope and impose numerous requirements on entities that process certain data, including personal data, such as requirements relating to processing sensitive data, obtaining consent of the individuals to whom the personal data relates in certain circumstances, providing information to individuals regarding data processing activities, implementing safeguards to protect the security and confidentiality of personal data, providing notification of data breaches and taking certain measures when engaging third-party processes that will have access to personal data. These laws and regulations are increasing in complexity and number, sometimes change, and can conflict among the various jurisdictions in which we operate. It is possible that we could be prohibited or constrained from collecting or disseminating certain types of data or from providing certain products or services as a result of such laws and regulations. For example, we may not be able, or we may fail, to obtain appropriate third-party consent where consent is required to collect or use certain types of data for certain purposes in our business. Moreover, if our business fails to comply with these laws or regulations, we could be subject to significant litigation and civil or criminal penalties (including monetary damages, regulatory enforcement actions or fines) in one or more jurisdictions, as well as reputational damage that could result in the loss of data, brand equity and business. For example, a failure to comply with the GDPR or U.K. GDPR could result in fines up to the greater of €20 million (or £17.5 million under the U.K. GDPR) or 4% of annual global revenues. Additionally, in the case of a DPPA violation, U.S. courts may award liquidated damages of $2,500 per individual’s personal information. Furthermore, any inquiries or investigations, or any other governmental actions, regarding our data processing practices could require significant management time and attention, and may result in negative publicity and subject us to increased costs, as well as demands or orders that we modify our existing business practices. Enforcement of these laws and regulations may increase as enforcement programs mature and better tooling enhances identification of compliance issues.

•We devote meaningful time and financial resources to compliance with current and future applicable international and U.S. privacy, cybersecurity, data protection and related laws and regulations. We have made, and expect to continue to make, capital investments and other expenditures to enhance cybersecurity preparedness and prevent future cyber incidents and breaches, including costs associated with additional security technologies, personnel, and experts. Any such expenses that we incur in the future, which could be material, will impact our results of operations in the period in which they are incurred, but may not meaningfully limit the success of future attempts to compromise our information or information technology systems.

•Continued privacy and data protection concerns may result in new or amended laws and regulations. Future laws and regulations with respect to the collection, compilation, use, and publication of information could result in limitations on our operations or data processing, leading to increased compliance or litigation expense and/or adverse publicity or loss of revenue, which could have a material adverse effect on our business, financial condition, or results of operations. It is also possible that we could be prohibited from collecting or disseminating certain types of data, which could affect our ability to meet our customers’ needs or require changes in our processes, technologies, and data management.

•We are also from time to time subject to, or face assertions that we are subject to, additional obligations relating to personal and other data by contract or due to assertions that self-regulatory obligations or industry standards apply to our practices. We are also subject to the terms of our privacy policies and privacy-related obligations to third parties, and could face claims or allegations that we are not in compliance with such terms, which could result in costly litigation and could have a material adverse effect on our business, financial condition or results of operations.

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Future legislation, regulatory reform or policy changes, especially abrupt changes, could have a material adverse effect on our business, financial condition or results of operations.

Future legislation, regulatory reform or policy changes, such as financial services regulatory reform, energy- or commodity-specific regulation, including oil, regulations related to pricing providers, credit rating data, sustainability or corporate responsibility matters, data privacy, operational resilience and cybersecurity, tax regulations, government-sponsored enterprise reform and increased infrastructure spending and significant changes in trade policy (including sanctions and tariffs), could impact our business. There are currently a number of laws and regulations in jurisdictions in which we operate around the world that have recently been adopted but not yet implemented or have been proposed or are being considered to which we or our clients will or may become subject, but at this time their impact on our business and results of operations remains uncertain. Changes in legislation, regulation or policy increase the likelihood that we will fail to appropriately adapt to changes in our compliance obligations, particularly when such changes happen abruptly, such as following a change in government. Any of the foregoing changes could increase our litigation and regulatory exposure, directly impact our results of operations and cash flows, adversely affect our ability to provide our products and services, or adversely impact the demand for our products and services and could have a material adverse effect on our business, financial condition or results of operations. Such changes may also impact our business by creating increased volatility and uncertainty in the markets in which we operate. At this time, we cannot predict the scope or nature of these changes or assess what the overall effect of such potential changes could be on our results of operations or cash flows.

Increasing regulation of our Ratings business in the U.S., Europe and elsewhere can increase our costs of doing business and therefore could have a material adverse effect on our business, financial condition or results of operations.

•The financial services industry is highly regulated, rapidly evolving and subject to the potential for increasing regulation in the U.S., Europe and elsewhere. The businesses conducted by Ratings are regulated under the laws of various jurisdictions around the world, including the U.S. Credit Rating Agency Reform Act of 2006, the U.S. Dodd-Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act, the U.S. Securities Exchange Act of 1934, the EU’s credit rating agency regulation, and the U.K.’s credit rating agency regulation.

•The U.S. Congress, the International Organization of Securities Commissions ("IOSCO"), the SEC, the European Commission, including through the European Securities Market Authority (“ESMA”) and the U.K. Financial Conduct Authority (“FCA”), as well as regulators in other countries in which Ratings operates, have reviewed the role of rating agencies and their processes and the need for greater oversight or regulations concerning the issuance of credit ratings or the activities of credit rating agencies, and they may conduct such reviews in the future. Other laws, regulations and rules relating to credit rating agencies are from time to time considered by local, national and multinational bodies and are likely to continue to be considered in the future, including, for example, provisions seeking to reduce regulatory and investor reliance on credit ratings or to increase competition among credit rating agencies, provisions regarding remuneration and rotation of credit rating agencies, and liability standards applicable to credit rating agencies. Other laws, regulations and rules are being considered or are likely to be considered in the future that may impact ancillary and other services provided by Ratings in addition to its credit rating products and services. Examples include regulatory oversight regimes for ESG ratings providers which may impose new regulatory requirements regarding some of Ratings’ ancillary and other services, such as the EU regulation on the transparency and integrity of ESG rating activities adopted by the European Parliament and Council in November 2024, or legislation and draft rules published by the FCA in 2025 to supervise ESG ratings providers from June 2028.

•Credit rating laws and regulations, and any other similar future rule-making, could result in reduced demand for credit ratings and/or significant increased costs, which we may be unable to pass through to customers. In addition, there may be uncertainty over the scope, interpretation and administration of such laws and regulations. We may be required to incur significant expenses and/or take actions inconsistent with our business objectives in order to comply with such laws and regulations and to mitigate the risk of fines, penalties or other sanctions. Legal proceedings could become increasingly lengthy and there may be increased uncertainty over and exposure to liability. It is difficult to accurately assess the future impact of legislative and regulatory requirements on our business and our customers’ businesses, and they may affect Ratings’ communications with issuers as part of the rating assignment process, alter the manner in which Ratings’ ratings are developed, affect the manner in which Ratings or its customers or users of credit ratings operate, impact the demand for our ratings or our other products and services and alter the economics of the credit ratings business. Each of these developments could materially increase the costs and legal risk associated with the issuance of our credit ratings or our other products and services and could have a material adverse effect on our operations, profitability and competitiveness, the demand for our credit ratings or our other products and services, and the manner in which our credit ratings are utilized.

•Additional information regarding rating agencies is provided under Item 7, Management’s Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations, in this Annual Report on Form 10-K.

Our Indices and Energy businesses are subject to a global evolving regulatory landscape, which has and may continue to cause increased operating obligations, exposure, compliance risk and costs of doing business, and could have a material adverse effect on our business, financial condition or results of operations.

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•In addition to the extensive and evolving U.S. laws and regulations, foreign jurisdictions have taken measures to increase regulation of the financial services and energy and commodities industries.

•Energy has aligned its operations with the Principles for Oil Price Reporting Agencies ("PRA Principles") issued by IOSCO and, as recommended by IOSCO in its final report on the PRA Principles, has aligned to the PRA Principles for other commodities for which it publishes benchmarks. Indices has aligned its governance regime, control framework and operations with the Principles for Financial Benchmarks ("Financial Benchmark Principles") issued by IOSCO and engages an independent auditor to perform an annual reasonable assurance review of its adherence to the Financial Benchmark Principles.

•Energy and Indices are subject to financial and commodity benchmark regulation in the EU (the “EU Benchmark Regulation”) and the U.K. (the “U.K. Benchmark Regulation”) as well as increasing benchmark regulation in other jurisdictions. Energy is supervised by the Dutch Authority for the Financial Markets for the EU Benchmark Regulation. Indices has recently transitioned from supervision by the Dutch Authority for the Financial Markets to supervision by ESMA for the EU Benchmark Regulation. Indices is also supervised by the FCA for the U.K. Benchmark Regulation. Indices is also subject to the benchmark regulation in Australia under which it is required to and has obtained a license from and is subject to the supervision of the Australian Securities and Investment Commission regarding its administration of the S&P ASX 200 index.

•Certain products and services provided by the S1 business in Energy are subject to the EU regulation on the transparency and integrity of ESG rating activities adopted by the European Parliament and Council in November 2024, and will also be subject to The Financial Services and Markets Act 2000 (Regulated Activities) (ESG Ratings) Order 2025 and will need to become supervised by the FCA for the ESG ratings it provides from June 2028.

•The EU's package of legislative measures called the Markets in Financial Instruments Directive and Regulation (collectively "MiFID II") have applied in all EU Member States since 2018. MiFID II and the Market Abuse Regulation may impose additional regulatory burdens on the activities of Indices and Energy in the EU over time, but their impact on, and costs to, the Company have not yet been substantive.

•The European Commission has adopted or proposed various options for regulatory intervention to address high energy prices including, among others, price limiting mechanisms on exchange traded gas products, the introduction of circuit breakers and the development of LNG import benchmarks.

•These laws, regulations and principles have impacted our Energy and Indices businesses by increasing their operating obligations, exposure, compliance risk, and costs of doing business. Such impacts may continue or get worse as the regulatory landscape continues to evolve, which could have a material adverse effect on our business, financial condition or results of operations.

Our international business activities must comport with international trade restraints, including economic sanctions regulations administered by the U.S. Treasury Department’s Office of Foreign Assets Control, which could affect our ability to market and/or sell our products and services into certain countries where we do business. Failure to comply with these laws and regulations can result in significant fines and penalties and related material adverse effects on our reputation, business, financial condition and results of operations.

•As a global company, we are subject to international trade restraints, including economic and financial sanction laws and embargoes. These laws include prohibitions or restrictions on the sale or supply of certain products and services to embargoed or sanctioned countries, regions, governments, persons and entities.

•Embargoes and sanctions laws are changing rapidly for certain geographies, including with respect to Iran, Russia, and Venezuela. These embargoes and sanctions laws have affected, and may in the future affect, our ability to continue to market and/or sell our products and services into these geographies and in turn adversely impact our revenue from such geographies. For example, in response to the ongoing military conflict between Russia and Ukraine, governments in the U.S., the EU, the U.K., Canada and others imposed financial and economic sanctions on certain industry segments and various parties in Russia and Belarus.

•Additional international trade restraints may be promulgated at any time and may require changes to our operations and increase our risk of noncompliance.

•Failure to comply with these laws and regulations can result in significant fines and penalties and related material adverse effects on our reputation, business, financial condition and results of operations. The Company has previously settled and paid fines in connection with such matters.

We may become subject to liability or face reputational harm due to our offerings.

•Some of our products and services support the investment processes and other activities of our clients, which, in the aggregate, manage or own trillions of dollars of assets. The use of our products or services as part of such activities, including the investment process, from time to time exposes us to claims for significant dollar amounts by our clients or the parties whose assets are managed by our clients. Such claims have not materially adversely affected us to date, but future claims may have a material adverse effect on our business, financial condition or results of operations.

•We have a heightened risk of litigation and reputational harm due to our role in the global markets.

•The products we develop or license, and the proprietary methodologies, models and processes on which these products rely, from time to time contain undetected errors or defects, despite testing and/or other quality assurance practices.

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Moreover, many of our products use new and evolving technologies that may contain their own undetected errors or defects. Errors or defects may exist during any part of a product’s life cycle and may persist notwithstanding testing and/or other quality assurance practices. Inadequate internal oversight or testing within the Company increases the risk that such errors or defects may not be detected or mitigated. Deploying products containing such errors or defects may damage our reputation, and the costs associated with remediating such errors or defects may have an impact on our profitability.

•Any claim relating to our products or services, even one in which the outcome is ultimately favorable to us, involves a significant commitment of our management, personnel, financial and other resources and could have a negative impact on our reputation. In addition, such claims and lawsuits could have a material adverse effect on our business, financial condition or results of operations.

Business and Operational Risks

Changes in the volume of securities issued and traded in domestic and/or global capital markets, asset levels and flows into investment products, high interest rates, changes in interest rates and volatility in the financial markets, and volatility in the energy and commodity markets impact our business, financial condition or results of operations.

•Our business is impacted by general economic conditions and volatility in the U.S. and world energy and commodity markets and financial markets.

•Economic conditions and volatility across the globe are generally affected by negative or uncertain economic and political conditions. In addition, natural and man-made disasters, public health crises (e.g., pandemics), and military action or conflict, such as the ongoing military conflicts between Russia and Ukraine and in the Middle East and the U.S. intervention in Venezuela, introduce volatility and uncertainty into the global capital and energy and commodity markets and negatively impact general economic conditions. Volatile, negative or uncertain economic and political conditions in our significant markets typically undermine business confidence in our significant markets or in other markets, which are increasingly interdependent. Because we operate globally and have significant businesses in many markets, increased volatility or an economic slowdown in any of those markets typically adversely affects our results of operations. For example, military conflicts typically result in adverse and uncertain economic conditions such as negatively impacting global demand for goods and services; causing supply chain disruptions (e.g., tensions across the Taiwan Straight that could lead to semiconductor supply disruption); increasing costs for transportation, energy and other raw materials; and causing an increase in cybersecurity incidents. Such conditions typically result in increased volatility and disruption to the global economy and the markets in which we operate, thereby adversely impacting our results of operations.

•Since a significant component of our credit-rating and issuance based revenue is transaction-based, and is essentially dependent on the number and dollar volume of rated debt securities issued in the capital markets, unfavorable financial or economic conditions that either reduce investor demand for rated debt securities or reduce issuers’ willingness or ability to issue rated debt securities reduce the number and dollar volume of debt issuances for which Ratings provides credit ratings.

•Unfavorable financial or economic conditions that either reduce investor demand for debt or equity securities or reduce issuers’ willingness or ability to issue such securities negatively impact the revenue of certain business lines within Market Intelligence that are linked to debt and equity issuances.

•Our Indices business is impacted by market volatility, asset levels or notional values of investment products based on our indices, and trading volumes of certain exchange traded derivatives. Uncertain economic conditions, political unrest and a variety of other factors may lead to market volatility and volatile capital markets, as well as changing investment styles, which, among other factors, may influence an investor’s decision to invest in and maintain an investment in an index-linked investment product.

•High or increasing interest rates or credit spreads, volatility in financial markets or the interest rate environment, significant political or economic events, defaults of significant issuers and other market and economic factors may negatively impact the general level of debt issuance, the debt issuance plans of certain categories of borrowers, the level of derivatives trading and/or the types of credit-sensitive products being offered, which impact our Ratings segment and portions of our Market Intelligence, Energy and Indices segments, and in the future could have a material adverse effect on our business, financial condition or results of operations.

•Our Energy business is impacted by volatility in the energy and commodity markets. Such volatility in our key markets could cause reduced demand for our products, impacting our revenues and margins. Changes in commodity price references, whether price assessments, benchmarks or the related trading activity in physical commodities and commodities derivatives, could have a material adverse effect on our business, financial condition or results of operations.

•High or increasing interest rates, volatility in financial markets or the interest rate environment, significant political or economic events, and other market and economic factors may impact the supply and demand for new and used vehicles, which impacts our Mobility business.

•Disruptions in the automotive supply chain impact production in the automotive industry and typically impact our Mobility business.

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•Any weakness in the macroeconomic environment, including due to recession, inflation, high or increasing interest rates and other factors, could constrain customer budgets across the markets we serve, potentially leading to a reduction in their employee headcount and a decrease in demand for our subscription-based products.

•The foregoing factors generally affect our performance and could have a material adverse effect on our business, financial condition or results of operations.

Inability to attract, retain or train key qualified personnel or to navigate key management transitions could have a material adverse effect on our business, financial condition or results of operations.

The development, maintenance, sale and support of our products and services are dependent upon the knowledge, experience and ability of our highly skilled, educated and trained key personnel. Accordingly, our business is dependent on successfully attracting, retaining and training talented employees and navigating key management transitions in a highly competitive business environment. Our ability to attract and retain talented employees is dependent on a number of factors, including prevailing market conditions and compensation packages offered by companies competing for the same talent. While we offer competitive salary and benefit packages, intense competition for talent within our markets is driving difficulties in attracting and retaining skilled employees. Key management transitions involve inherent risk, and such transition periods can be disruptive and may result in a loss of personnel with deep institutional or technical knowledge. If we are less successful in our recruiting efforts, or if we are unable to attract, retain or train key qualified personnel or to navigate key management transitions, our ability to develop and deliver successful products and services or achieve strategic goals may be adversely affected, which could have a material adverse effect on our business, financial condition or results of operations.

The planned separation of our Mobility business into an independent, publicly traded company is contingent upon the satisfaction of a number of conditions, may not be completed on the currently contemplated timeline, or at all, and may not achieve the intended benefits.

On April 29, 2025, we announced our intent to pursue a separation of our Mobility business through a spin-off to our shareholders. The proposed separation is subject to various conditions, is complex in nature, and may be affected by unanticipated developments. The separation is intended to qualify as a tax-free transaction for U.S. federal income tax purposes. There can be no assurance regarding the ultimate timing of the separation or that such separation will be completed. Unanticipated developments could delay, prevent or otherwise adversely affect the separation, including but not limited to disruptions in general or financial market conditions or potential problems or delays in satisfying required conditions. Such developments could cause the separation to occur on terms or conditions that are less favorable than anticipated. In addition, we may not be able to achieve the full strategic and financial benefits that we anticipate to result from the separation, or such benefits may be delayed or not occur at all. The anticipated benefits of the separation are based on a number of assumptions, some of which may prove incorrect. We also expect to incur significant expenses in connection with the separation, certain of which will be incurred even if the separation is not completed. Executing the separation will continue to require significant resources, time and attention from our senior management and employees, which could divert attention and resources away from other projects and the day-to-day operation of our business. We may experience negative reactions from financial markets if we do not complete the separation in a reasonable time period. Following the proposed separation, the combined value of the shares of the two publicly-traded companies may not be equal to or greater than what the value of our shares would have been had the separation not occurred. The above factors could have a material adverse effect on our business, financial condition, results of operations or the price of our shares.

Our acquisitions, divestitures and other strategic transactions may not produce anticipated results, which could have a material adverse effect on our business, financial condition or results of operations.

•We have made and expect to continue to make acquisitions, divestitures and other strategic transactions to strengthen our business and grow our Company. Such transactions present significant challenges and risks, as the market for acquisitions, divestitures and other strategic transactions is highly competitive, especially in light of industry consolidation, which affects our ability to complete such transactions.

•If we are unsuccessful in completing such transactions or if such opportunities for expansion do not arise, our business, financial condition or results of operations could be materially adversely affected.

•If such transactions are completed, the anticipated growth and other strategic objectives of such transactions may not be fully realized or may take longer to realize than expected, and a variety of factors may adversely affect any anticipated benefits from such transactions. Our acquisitions, divestitures and other strategic transactions face difficulties, including, but not limited to, the following:

◦the process of integration being more expensive or requiring more resources than anticipated;

◦an acquisition changing the composition of our markets and product mix, and difficulty gaining the skills necessary for such markets or products;

◦delays or difficulties consolidating corporate and administrative infrastructures and eliminating duplicative operations, including issues in integrating financial reporting, information technology infrastructure, data and content management systems and product platforms, communications and other systems;

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◦delays or difficulties harmonizing corporate cultures, operating practices, management philosophies, employee development and compensation programs, internal controls, compliance programs and other policies, procedures and processes;

◦assuming unintended liabilities;

◦unexpected regulatory and operating difficulties and expenditures, including regulatory challenges that impact our ability to conduct due diligence;

◦failure to maintain employee morale or retain key personnel of the current or acquired business;

◦failure to retain existing business and operational relationships;

◦continuing operational or financial obligations that arise under transition services agreements requiring significant management and operational resources that limit our ability to fully implement cost reduction and efficiency initiatives or other aspects of our transition plans, or divert the management’s focus from other business operations;

◦difficulty coordinating geographically separate organizations, including consolidating offices;

◦the impact of divestitures on our revenue growth being larger than projected due to greater dis-synergies or adverse effects on our overall product offerings than expected;

◦divestitures requiring continued financial involvement in the divested business through continuing equity ownership, guarantees, indemnities, other financial or operational obligations, or transition services obligations;

◦incurring impairment charges or other losses related to divestitures; and

◦diversion of management’s focus from other business operations.

•The failure of acquisitions, divestitures and other strategic transactions to perform as expected could have a material adverse effect on our business, financial condition or results of operations.

The markets in which we operate are intensely competitive, and our inability to successfully compete could materially adversely affect our business, financial condition or results of operations.

•The markets for credit ratings, financial research, market data and solutions, index-based products, automotive data, energy and commodities analytics and price assessments, and related news and information about these markets are intensely competitive. Our businesses compete domestically and internationally on the basis of a number of factors, including the quality of their offerings, client service, reputation, price, geographic scope, range of products and technological innovation.

•While our businesses face competition from traditional content and analytics providers (including exchanges), we also face competition from non-traditional providers, many of whom are our clients, such as asset managers, investment banks, private equity and technology-led companies that are adding content and analytics capabilities to their core businesses.

•The competitive landscape also experiences consolidation in the form of mergers and acquisitions, joint ventures or strategic partnerships, which results in competitors that are better capitalized or that are able to gain a competitive advantage through synergies.

•In some of the countries in which our businesses operate, governments have, and may in the future, provide financial or other support to locally-based competitors (particularly credit rating agencies) and have, and may from time to time in the future, establish official credit rating agencies, credit ratings criteria, benchmarks or benchmark providers, or procedures for evaluating local issuers.

•Changes in the markets in which we compete from time to time drive us to lower the fees we charge for our products and services in order to remain competitive. Moreover, certain of our fees are based on the performance of our customers, and such fees are negatively impacted when our customers’ performance is down, including due to changes in their markets.

•If we are not able to successfully compete with our competitors, we may be required to significantly reduce the costs for our products or services, or we may lose significant market share, revenue or customers, which could materially adversely affect our business, financial condition or results of operations.

A significant increase in operating costs and expenses could have a material adverse effect on our profitability.

•Our major expenditures include employee compensation and capital investments.

•We offer competitive salary and benefit packages to attract and retain the quality employees required to grow and expand our businesses. Compensation and benefits costs are influenced by general economic factors, including but not limited to changes in the cost of health insurance, retirement benefits, inflation, trends specific to the skill sets required for our workforce, and the amount of competition for qualified employees within our markets.

•We make significant investments in information technology data centers and other technology initiatives and such investments may not result in increased revenues.

•We rely on data provided by third-party data suppliers for a variety of our products and we rely significantly on AWS to provide, develop and maintain our cloud infrastructure. We are facing increasing costs from our third-party service providers due to a number of reasons, including inflationary pressures and costs associated with the increasing complexity of the data we require.

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•Although we believe we are prudent in our investment strategies and execution of our implementation plans, the ultimate recoverability or effectiveness of these investments is not yet known.

•A significant increase in any of the operating costs and expenses mentioned above could have a material adverse effect on our profitability.

Consolidation of customers, reduced staffing levels of customers or reduced spending by customers could have a material adverse effect on our business, financial condition or results of operations.

•Our businesses have a customer base which is largely comprised of members from the corporate, financial services, energy and commodities, and automotive industries. The consolidation of customers resulting from mergers and acquisitions across these industries can result in reductions in the number of firms and workforce which can impact the size of our customer base.

•Our customers that strive to reduce their operating costs may seek to reduce their spending on our products and services. If a large number of smaller customers or a critical number of larger customers reduce their spending with us, our business, financial condition or results of operations could be materially and adversely affected.

•Alternatively, customers may use other strategies to reduce their overall spending on financial, energy and commodity market and automotive products and services by consolidating their spending with fewer vendors, including by selecting other vendors with lower-cost offerings, or by self-sourcing their need for financial, energy and commodity market and automotive products and services. If a significant portion of our customer base elects to consolidate their spending on financial, energy and commodity market and automotive products and services with other vendors and not us or self-source their product and service needs, or if we lose a large portion of our business to lower priced competitors, our business, financial condition or results of operations could be materially and adversely affected.

We rely on the products and services of other suppliers, including certain data, software and service suppliers, for many aspects of our business. From time to time, we lose key outside suppliers of data, products, and services or the data, products, or services of these suppliers have errors or are delayed, resulting in a disruption or inability to provide our clients with the information, products or services they desire.

•Our ability to produce our products and services and develop new products and services is dependent upon the products and services of other suppliers, including certain data, software and service suppliers. We obtain data from many third-party data sources. Our business relies on our ability to obtain data for our own internal operational purposes and for the benefit of customers using our products and services. Certain of our third-party data sources supply us with critical datasets that support our products and services for which suitable alternative sources may not be readily available. If any such providers were to limit, discontinue or materially alter the terms of our access, we may be unable to obtain comparable data from other sources in a timely or cost-effective manner, or at all, which could have a material adverse effect on our business, financial condition or results of operations.

•Some of our products and services and their related value are dependent upon updates from our third-party data suppliers and most of our information and data products and services are dependent upon continuing access to historical and current data.

•We could experience interruptions in our data access for a number of reasons, including difficulties in renewing our agreements with third-party data providers, changes to the software used by third-party data providers, efforts by industry participants to restrict access to data, increased fees we may be charged by third-party data providers and legal or regulatory changes. Our competitive position could be negatively affected if any of our key data providers terminates its relationship with us or if data flow from any key data provider is interrupted. If these third-party data providers experience difficulty meeting our requirements or standards, have adverse audit results, violate the terms of our agreements or applicable law, fail to obtain or maintain applicable licenses, cease operations temporarily or permanently, face financial distress or other business disruptions, increase their fees, or if the relationships we have established with such third-party data providers deteriorate, expire or otherwise terminate, whether as a result of macroeconomic conditions or otherwise, we could suffer increased costs and we may be unable to provide similar services or operate certain aspects of our business until we are able to find an equivalent provider or develop replacement technology or operations, which could damage our financial condition and reputation. Furthermore, if we are unsuccessful in identifying or finding high-quality third-party data providers, if we fail to negotiate cost-effective relationships with them, or if we ineffectively manage these relationships, it could have a material adverse effect on our business, financial condition or results of operations.

•Many of our suppliers are also our competitors, and from time to time they negotiate to change the terms of the data and products that they supply to us in order to gain an advantage in the marketplace, which could materially harm our business.

•We utilize certain information and data provided by third-party sources in a variety of ways, including information gathered by market participants and large volumes of data from certain stock exchanges around the world.

•From time to time, the data from our suppliers has errors, is delayed, has design defects, is unavailable on acceptable terms or is not available at all. While such issues have not materially adversely affected us to date, the future occurrence of any such issue could have a material adverse effect on our business, financial condition or results of operations.

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•The consolidation of our suppliers has reduced the number of firms we partner with, which has impacted the size of our supplier base for certain products and services and resulted in an increase in fees charged by certain of our supplier partners.

•Some of our agreements with data suppliers allow them to cancel on short notice. Termination of significant data agreements or exclusion from, or restricted use of, or litigation in connection with, significant third-party data assets could result in a substantial decrease of the available information for us to use (and offer our clients) and could have a material adverse effect on our business, financial condition or results of operations.

Our inability to successfully recover should we, our third-party service providers or our clients experience a disaster or other business continuity problem could cause material financial loss, loss of human capital, regulatory actions, reputational harm, damaged client relationships or legal liability.

•Should we or our third-party service providers experience a local or regional disaster or other business continuity problem, such as an earthquake, hurricane, flood, civil unrest, protests, military conflict, terrorist attack, public health crisis (e.g., pandemic), security breach, cyber attack, data breach, power loss, telecommunications failure or other natural or man-made disaster, our ability to continue to operate will depend, in part, on the availability of our or our third-party service provider’s personnel, our or our third-party service provider’s office facilities and the proper functioning of our or our third-party service provider’s computer, telecommunication and other related systems and operations. In the event of any such disaster or other business continuity problem, we could experience operational challenges with regard to particular areas of our operations, such as key executive officers or personnel, or we could be exposed to the operational challenges of our third-party service providers, over which we have no control, which could have a material adverse effect on our business, financial condition or results of operations.

•The steps governments take to prevent or contain a disaster or other business continuity problem (such as travel restrictions, shelter in place orders, business shutdowns, or quarantines) may negatively impact our operations, or the operations of our third-party service providers or clients, or may limit our ability to interact with clients and effectively maintain and grow our operations, including through securing new subscriptions and renewals.

•The negative impact of a disaster or other business continuity problem on our clients could result in our products and services facing pricing pressure or delayed renewals, and challenges to new sales, which would in turn reduce revenue, ultimately impacting our results of operations.

•We regularly assess and take steps to improve our existing business continuity plans and key management succession. However, a disaster on a significant scale or affecting certain of our key operating areas within or across regions, or our inability to successfully recover should we, our third-party service providers or our clients experience a disaster or other business continuity problem, could materially interrupt our business operations and result in material financial loss, loss of human capital, regulatory actions, reputational harm, damaged client relationships or legal liability.

Our reputation, credibility, and brand are key assets and competitive advantages of our Company and our business, financial condition or results of operations could be materially and adversely affected if we are negatively perceived in the marketplace.

•Our reputation, credibility, and the strength of our brand are key competitive strengths.

•Given our role in the financial, energy and commodity, and automotive markets, our ability to attract and retain customers is uniquely affected by external perceptions of our reputation, credibility, and brand.

•We provide credit ratings, pricing and valuation services, benchmark products, indices, and ESG scores and data, many of which depend on contributions or inputs from third parties or market participants. Our customers and other market participants expect us to be able to demonstrate that our products and services are produced independently and are not readily subject to manipulation. We believe our products and services are designed with appropriate methodologies, processes, and procedures to maintain independence and integrity; however, we may not be able to prevent third parties or market participants from working together or colluding to try to manipulate their inputs and thus the resulting outputs of our products and services. From time to time, we are involved in third-party investigations or litigation related to the markets and stakeholders our products and services serve. Any failures, negative publicity, investigations, or lawsuits that implicate the independence and integrity of our credit ratings, pricing and valuation services, benchmarks, indices, and ESG scores and data could result in a loss of confidence in the administration of these products and services and could harm our reputation and our business.

•Negative perceptions or publicity could damage our reputation with customers, prospects, regulators, and the public generally, which in turn could negatively impact, among other things, our ability to attract and retain customers, employees and suppliers, as well as suitable candidates for acquisitions or other combinations. For example, we have faced and could in the future face negative perceptions or publicity with respect to our sustainability and corporate responsibility policies and practices or our sustainability products, methodologies, or scores, including as a result of a revision, suspension or withdrawal of, or a failure to meet, our publicly disclosed sustainability and corporate responsibility targets, goals or practices, or as a result of misalignment with evolving, and in certain instances conflicting, market standards, expectations of regulators and other stakeholders, and regulations and codes of conduct. In addition, sustainability and corporate responsibility state, federal and international laws, regulations, standards and regulatory expectations are evolving, varied and at times conflicting, and our failure or perceived failure to comply

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with such laws, regulations, standards or expectations could result in adverse reactions by certain stakeholders, including governmental authorities, regulators, shareholders and customers, including the commencement of private litigation or government and regulatory proceedings, investigations, inquiries and litigation.

•Our divisions are all actively engaged in analyzing and providing views on economic conditions, including assessing the impact of events that create volatility and economic uncertainty, such as the ongoing military conflicts between Russia and Ukraine and in the Middle East, tensions across the Taiwan Strait and U.S. intervention in Venezuela. Notwithstanding the care we take in carrying out our work, the views and assumptions we express, the conclusions we draw, the actions we take (including, but not limited to, rating actions, revising the composition of our indices, etc.), and the work our divisions produce are likely to be heavily scrutinized with the benefit of hindsight. We have faced significant regulatory and media scrutiny following prior periods of volatility and economic uncertainty. Such scrutiny has in the past and may in the future impact our reputation, brand and credibility and result in private litigation or government and regulatory proceedings, investigations, inquiries and litigation.

•Given our businesses are often privy to material non-public information concerning our customers, our data could be improperly used, including for insider trading by our employees and third-party vendors with access to key systems. We have experienced insider trading incidents involving employees in the past, and it is not always possible to deter misconduct by employees or third-party vendors. We take precautions to detect and prevent such activity, including training on insider trading policies for our employees, contractual obligations for our third-party vendors, and policies that require access restrictions for material non-public information, but such precautions are not guaranteed to deter misconduct. Any breach of our clients’ confidences as a result of employee or third-party vendor misconduct could harm our reputation.

•Damage to our reputation, credibility, and brand could have a material adverse effect on our business, financial condition or results of operations.

We are exposed to multiple risks associated with the global nature of our operations, which could have a material adverse effect on our reputation, business, financial condition or results of operations.

•The geographic breadth of our activities subjects us to significant legal, economic, operational, market, compliance and reputational risks. These include, among others, risks relating to:

◦economic and political conditions around the world,

◦inflation,

◦high interest rates or fluctuation in interest rates, currency exchange rates or energy and commodity markets,

◦limitations that foreign governments may impose on the conversion of currency or the payment of dividends or other remittances to us from our non-U.S. subsidiaries,

◦differing accounting principles and standards,

◦increases in taxes or changes in U.S. or foreign tax laws,

◦potential costs and difficulties in complying with a wide variety of foreign laws and regulations (including tax systems) administered by foreign government agencies, some of which may conflict with U.S. or other sources of law,

◦changes in applicable laws and regulatory requirements, including data localization and operational resilience requirements,

◦restrictive actions of governmental authorities in the jurisdictions in which we operate affecting trade, cross-border data transfer and foreign investment, especially during periods of heightened tension between governmental authorities in such jurisdictions, including protective measures such as export restrictions and customs duties and tariffs, government intervention favoring local competitors, data localization efforts, and restrictions on the level of foreign ownership,

◦nationalization, expropriation, price controls, withdrawal of licenses to operate, and unilateral termination of contracts by government entities,

◦competition with local rating agencies that have greater familiarity, longer operating histories and/or support from local governments or other institutions, and

◦civil unrest, protests, terrorism, unstable governments, geopolitical uncertainties and legal systems, and other factors.

Adverse developments in any of these areas could have a material adverse effect on our business, financial condition or results of operations.

•Additionally, we are subject to complex U.S., European and other local laws and regulations that are applicable to our operations abroad, including trade sanctions laws, anti-corruption and anti-bribery laws such as the U.S. Foreign Corrupt Practices Act and the U.K. Bribery Act of 2010, anti-money laundering laws, and other financial crimes laws. Our internal controls, policies and procedures and employee training and compliance programs related to these topics are not always effective in preventing employees, contractors or agents from violating or circumventing such internal policies and violating applicable laws and regulations. Violations of such laws could result in a material adverse effect on our reputation, business, financial condition or results of operations.

•Compliance with international and U.S. laws and regulations that apply to our international operations increases the cost of doing business in foreign jurisdictions. Violations of such laws and regulations may result in fines and

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penalties, criminal sanctions, administrative remedies, or restrictions on business conduct that have a material adverse effect on our reputation, business, financial condition or results of operations.

Outsourcing certain aspects of our business could result in material financial loss, increased costs, regulatory actions and penalties, reputational harm, unauthorized access to our systems, system or network disruption, or improper disclosure of confidential information.

•We have outsourced certain functions to third-party service providers to leverage leading specialized capabilities and achieve cost efficiencies, and such functions may be further outsourced. From time to time, our third-party service providers do not perform to our standards, produce reliable results, perform in a timely manner, or perform at all. We also face the risk that our third-party service providers may fail to comply with legal requirements or maintain the confidentiality of our proprietary information. Failure of these third parties to meet their contractual, regulatory, confidentiality, or other obligations to us could result in material financial loss, higher costs, regulatory actions and reputational harm.

•Outsourcing these functions also involves the risk that the third-party service providers may not maintain adequate physical, technical and administrative safeguards to protect the security of our confidential information and data. Failure of these third parties to maintain these safeguards from time to time results in unauthorized access to our systems or a system or network disruption that has at times in the past led to, and could in the future lead to, improper disclosure of confidential information or data, regulatory penalties or remedial costs. While such incidents have not had a material impact on the Company to date, future incidents could have a material adverse effect on our business, financial condition or results of operations.

•AWS provides a distributed computing infrastructure platform for business operations, or what is commonly referred to as a “cloud” computing service. Currently, we run a significant amount of our computing on AWS. Given this, any disruption of or interference with our use of AWS would impact our operations and our business would be adversely impacted.

•We rely on the business infrastructure and systems of third parties with whom we do business and to whom we outsource the maintenance and development of operational and technological functionality, including our AWS “cloud” computing services. Our service providers from time to time experience system breakdowns or failures, outages, downtime, cyber attacks, adverse changes to financial condition, bankruptcy or other adverse conditions. While such incidents have not had a material impact on the Company to date, future incidents could have a material adverse effect on our business, financial condition or results of operations. Thus, our plans to increase the amount of our infrastructure that we outsource to “the cloud” or to other third parties may increase our risk exposure.

Sustainability and energy expansion matters pose operational, commercial and regulatory risks.

The physical commodity and commodity derivative markets may be impacted by decisions by market participants and policy makers to address sustainability and energy expansion matters. Consumer and institutional preferences around sustainability and energy expansion matters continue to change, and the possible failure of our products or services to facilitate the needs of customers facing these issues could adversely impact our business and revenues. Changing preferences, including as a result of shifting market or political sentiment, could also have an adverse impact on the operations or financial condition of our customers, which could result in reduced revenues from those customers. We are also subject to risks relating to state, federal and international sustainability regulations, legislation and regulatory expectations, which are evolving, varied and at times conflicting, and which could impact us and our customers and result in increased regulatory, compliance or operational costs. We are also subject to reputational risks relating to the perception of whether or not we are taking policy positions with regard to energy consumption and sources or other sustainability or energy expansion matters. These risks associated with sustainability and energy expansion matters are continuing to evolve rapidly, and we expect that such risks may continue to increase over time.

Our expansion into and investments in new and growing markets may not be successful, which could adversely impact our business, financial condition and results of operations.

We believe there remains significant opportunity to expand our business into major geographic and product markets (including private markets, energy expansion, supply chain intelligence, wealth, decentralized finance, and emerging markets), and we are in the process of such expansion efforts. Expansion into these markets requires significant levels of investment and attention from management. These markets may not develop as anticipated or we may not have success in these markets, in which case we may be unable to recover our investment spent to expand our business into these markets or may forgo opportunities in more lucrative markets, which could adversely impact our business, financial condition and results of operations.

Our indebtedness, or a downgrade to our credit ratings, could adversely affect our business, financial condition, and results of operations.

•We may incur substantial additional indebtedness (including secured indebtedness) for many reasons, including to fund acquisitions, which could have significant consequences on our future operations, including: making it more

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difficult for us to satisfy our indebtedness obligations and our other ongoing business obligations, which may result in defaults; events of default if we fail to comply with the financial and other covenants contained in the agreements governing our debt instruments, which could result in all of our debt becoming immediately due and payable or require us to negotiate an amendment to financial or other covenants that could cause us to incur additional fees and expenses; limiting our flexibility in planning for, or reacting to, and increasing our vulnerability to, changes in our business, the industries in which we operate, and the overall economy; placing us at a competitive disadvantage compared to any of our competitors that have less debt or are less leveraged; and increasing our vulnerability to the impact of adverse economic and industry conditions.

•Our ability to meet our payment and other obligations under our debt instruments depends on our ability to generate significant cash flow in the future. This, to some extent, is subject to general economic, financial, competitive, legislative, and regulatory factors as well as other factors that are beyond our control. We cannot be certain that our business will generate cash flow from operations, or that future borrowings will be available to us under our existing or any future credit facilities or otherwise, in an amount sufficient to enable us to meet our indebtedness obligations and to fund other liquidity needs.

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Item 1B. Unresolved Staff Comments

None.

Item 1C. Cybersecurity

Risk Management and strategy.

Integrated Risk Management

Management is responsible for the day-to-day management of the Company’s risk exposures in a manner consistent with the strategic direction and objectives established by the Board. As a critical component of the Company’s risk management process, management has adopted an integrated risk management framework to continuously identify, assess, measure, manage, monitor and report current and emerging non-financial risks. As part of this framework, the Company has an Enterprise Risk Management (“ERM”) Committee which is chaired by the Company’s Chief Risk Officer. Our Chief Information Security Officer (“CISO”) is also a member of the ERM Committee. The ERM Committee oversees the Company’s risk management framework, including the implementation of the framework components across the Company and promotes a strong Company-wide culture of risk management, compliance and control.

Engagement of Third-party Support

We engage third-party services to conduct evaluations of our security controls, whether through penetration testing, independent audits or consulting on best practices to address new challenges. These evaluations include testing both the design and operational effectiveness of security controls. We also share and receive threat intelligence with our defense industrial base peers, government agencies, information sharing and analysis centers and cybersecurity associations.

Third-party Risk Management

Our risk management program also assesses third-party risks, and we perform third-party risk management to identify and mitigate risks from third parties such as vendors, suppliers, and other business partners associated with our use of third-party service providers. Cybersecurity risks are evaluated when determining the selection and oversight of applicable third-party service providers.

Impact of Risks from Cybersecurity Threats

We are regularly subject to cybersecurity attacks. None of the risks from cybersecurity threats we’ve faced to date have materially affected, and we do not believe are reasonably likely to materially affect the Company, our business strategy, results of operations or financial condition. For further information about risks we face from cybersecurity threats, see the risk factor entitled "Our size, scale and role in the global markets increases our risk for cyber attacks and other cyber-security risks. Our information systems and networks and those of our third-party service providers are exposed to risks related to cybersecurity and protection of confidential information, including material non-public information, which could have a material adverse effect on our business, financial condition or results of operations" in Item 1A, Risk Factors in this Annual Report on Form 10-K.

Governance.

Board Oversight of Cybersecurity Threats

The board of directors of the Company (the “Board”) has oversight responsibility for the Company’s risk management framework, including technology and cybersecurity risks facing the Company.

Our Board and Audit Committee gave significant consideration over the past several years to the appropriate Board and Committee oversight structure for risks associated with technology and cybersecurity. The full Board receives briefings from management on enterprise-wide technology, cybersecurity risk management and the overall technology and cybersecurity environment by management. Specifically, the full Board receives biannual reports from the Chief Digital Solutions Officer and the CISO.

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The Board coordinates with the Audit Committee to ensure active Board- and Committee-level oversight of the Company’s technology and cyber risk profile, enterprise technology and cyber strategies, and information security initiatives. In addition, the Board has delegated primary responsibility for oversight of the Company’s key risks, including cybersecurity, to the Audit Committee. The Audit Committee reviews technology and cybersecurity risks, as well as the Company’s risk mitigation processes and internal control procedures to protect sensitive business information. The Audit Committee also receives regular updates from the Chief Digital Solutions Officer and the CISO on the Company’s technology and cybersecurity programs. In addition, the Finance Committee oversees management’s strategy with regard to technology and associated risks, including cybersecurity risks, when considering major capital expenditures and acquisitions. The Board also receives regular updates from the Audit Committee on its in-depth Committee-level review.

Role of Management

In addition to the risk management activities undertaken by the ERM Committee, our corporate information security organization, led by our CISO, is responsible for our overall information security strategy, policy, security engineering, operations and cyber threat detection and response. The current CISO has more than 32 years of technology industry leadership, cybersecurity expertise and engineering and operations experience. The corporate information security organization manages and continually enhances the Company’s enterprise security structure with the goal of preventing cybersecurity incidents to the extent feasible, while simultaneously increasing our system resilience to minimize the business impact should an incident occur. Central to this organization is our cyber incident response team, which is responsible for the Company’s protection, detection and response capabilities. In the event of a cybersecurity incident, the Company is equipped with an incident response plan that includes: (i) detection and analysis, (ii) containment and eradication, and (iii) remediation and (iv) preparation for future incidents. Incident responses are led by our Information Security team and supported by Legal, Compliance and other functions as appropriate. The CISO and the Chief Digital Solutions Officer provide regular updates to the Board and the Audit Committee concerning the Company’s technology and cybersecurity programs, associated risks and the Company’s efforts to help mitigate those risks.

Item 2. Properties

Our corporate headquarters are located in leased premises located at 55 Water Street, New York, NY 10041. We lease office facilities at 154 locations; 35 are in the U.S. In addition, we own real property at 6 locations, of which 2 are in the U.S. Our properties consist primarily of office space used by each of our segments. We believe that all of our facilities are well maintained and are suitable and adequate for our current needs.

Item 3. Legal Proceedings

For information on our legal proceedings, see Note 13 – Commitments and Contingencies under Item 8, Consolidated Financial Statements and Supplementary Data, in this Annual Report on Form 10-K.

For the disclosure of environmental proceedings with a governmental entity as a party pursuant to Item 103(c)(3)(iii) of Regulation S-K, we have elected to disclose matters where we reasonably believe such proceeding would result in monetary sanctions, exclusive of interest and costs, of $1.0 million or more.

Item 4. Mine Safety Disclosures

Not applicable.

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Information about our Executive Officers

The following individuals are the executive officers of the Company:

Name

Age

Position

Martina L. Cheung

President and Chief Executive Officer

Eric W. Aboaf

Executive Vice President, Chief Financial Officer

Christopher F. Craig

Senior Vice President, Chief Accounting Officer

Market Intelligence

Saugata Saha

President, S&P Global Market Intelligence & Chief Enterprise Data Officer, S&P Global

Ratings

Yann Le Pallec

President, S&P Global Ratings

Energy

David Ernsberger

President, S&P Global Energy

Mobility

William Eager

President, S&P Global Mobility

Indices

Catherine Clay

Chief Executive Officer, S&P Dow Jones Indices

S&P Global Functions

Girish Ganesan

Executive Vice President, Chief People Officer

Steven J. Kemps

Executive Vice President, Chief Legal Officer

Sally Moore

Executive Vice President, Chief Client Officer

Christina Twomey

Senior Vice President, Chief Communications Officer

Mr. Aboaf has served as Executive Vice President, Chief Financial Officer since February 2025. Mr. Aboaf joined S&P Global from State Street Corporation, where he joined as Executive Vice President in December 2016, and served as Executive Vice President and Chief Financial Officer since February 2017 and as Vice Chairman since May 2022.

Ms. Cheung, prior to becoming President and Chief Executive Officer in November 2024, was President, S&P Global Ratings since February 2022, was President, S&P Global Market Intelligence since January 2019, was Head of Risk Services for S&P Global Market Intelligence since September 2015, was Chief Strategy Officer for S&P Global since March 2014, and was Vice President of Operations for S&P Global Ratings since joining the Company in 2010.

Ms. Clay has served as Chief Executive Officer of S&P Dow Jones Indices since November 2025. Ms. Clay joined S&P Global from Cboe Global Markets, Inc., where she served as Executive Vice President, Global Head of Derivatives since October 2023, and prior to that as Executive Vice President, Global Head of Cboe Data Vantage since March 2021.

Mr. Craig has served as Senior Vice President, Chief Accounting Officer since September 2018 and has also led Enterprise Business Services since June 2025. Mr. Craig also served as Interim Chief Financial Officer from February 2024 to February 2025.

Mr. Eager, prior to becoming President, S&P Global Mobility in August 2025, was Chief Executive Officer of CARFAX since December 2021, and prior to that was Vice President of CARFAX’s Dealer Business for 17 years.

Mr. Ernsberger, prior to becoming President of S&P Global Energy in November 2025, was co-President of S&P Global Energy since November 2024, was Head of Market Reporting and Trading Solutions for S&P Global Energy since March 2022, and was Global Head of Pricing & Market Insight for S&P Global Energy (then known as S&P Global Platts) since January 2020.

Mr. Ganesan, prior to becoming Executive Vice President, Chief People Officer in November 2024, was Senior Vice President, People for S&P Global since he joined the Company in October 2021. Prior to joining the Company, Mr. Ganesan was Global Head of Diversity and Inclusion and Head of US Talent at TD Bank Group since November 2018.

Mr. Kemps, prior to becoming Executive Vice President, Chief Legal Officer in October 2021, served as Executive Vice President, General Counsel since August 2016.

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Mr. Le Pallec, prior to becoming President of S&P Global Ratings in November 2024, was Executive Managing Director, Head of Global Ratings Services for S&P Global Ratings since April 2017.

Ms. Moore, prior to becoming Executive Vice President, Chief Client Officer in November 2024, was Executive Vice President, Global Head of Strategy, M&A and Partnerships since February 2022, and prior to that was Executive Vice President, Global Head of Corporate Development & Strategic Alliances at IHS Markit since January 2018.

Mr. Saha, prior to becoming President of S&P Global Market Intelligence and Chief Enterprise Data Officer of S&P Global, was President of S&P Global Energy (then known as S&P Global Platts) since January 2021.

Ms. Twomey, prior to becoming Senior Vice President, Chief Communications Officer in November 2024, was Global Head of Communications for S&P Global since January 2024, and was Vice President, Head of Communications for S&P Global Ratings and S&P Global Sustainable1 since March 2020.

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PART II

Item 5. Market for the Registrant’s Common Equity, Related Stockholder Matters and Issuer Purchases of Equity Securities

Common Stock

S&P Global Inc.’s common stock is traded on the New York Exchange (“NYSE”) under the ticker symbol (“SPGI”). The approximate number of record holders of our common stock as of January 30, 2026 was 2,585.

The performance graph below compares our cumulative total shareholder return during the previous five years with a performance indicator of the overall market (i.e., S&P 500), and our peer group. The peer group consists of the following companies: Moody’s Corporation, CME Group Inc., MSCI Inc., FactSet Research Systems Inc., Verisk Analytics, Inc. and Intercontinental Exchange, Inc. Returns assume $100 invested on December 31, 2020 and total return includes reinvestment of dividends through December 31, 2025.

Dividends

We expect to continue our policy of paying regular cash dividends, although there is no assurance as to future dividend payments because they depend on future earnings, capital requirements and our financial condition. Regular quarterly dividends per share of our common stock for 2025 and 2024 were as follows:


	2025		2024
$0.96 per quarter in 2025	$	3.84
$0.91 per quarter in 2024			$	3.64

On January 14, 2026, the Board of Directors approved a quarterly common stock dividend of $0.97 per share.

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Transfer Agent and Registrar for Common Stock

Computershare is the transfer agent for S&P Global. Computershare maintains the records for the Company's registered shareholders and can assist with a variety of shareholder related services.

Shareholder correspondence should be mailed to:

Computershare

P.O. Box 43006

Providence, RI 02940-3006

Overnight correspondence should be mailed to:

Computershare

150 Royall St., Suite 101

Canton, MA 02021

Visit the Investor Center™ website to view and manage shareholder account information online: www.computershare.com/investor

For shareholder assistance:


In the U.S. and Canada:			888-201-5538
Outside the U.S. and Canada:			201-680-6578
TDD for the hearing impaired:			800-490-1493
TDD outside the U.S. and Canada:			781-575-4592
E-mail address:			web.queries@computershare.com
Shareholder online inquiries			https://www-us.computershare.com/investor/Contact

Repurchase of Equity Securities

On November 13, 2025, the Board of Directors approved a share repurchase program authorizing the purchase of 30 million shares (the “2025 Repurchase Program”), which was approximately 10% of the total shares of our outstanding common stock at the time. During the fourth quarter of 2025, we did not repurchase any shares under the 2025 Repurchase Program and, as of December 31, 2025, 30 million shares remained under the 2025 Repurchase Program. On June 22, 2022, the Board of Directors approved a share repurchase program authorizing the purchase of 30 million shares (the “2022 Repurchase Program”), which was approximately 9% of the total shares of our outstanding common stock at that time. During the fourth quarter of 2025, we received 4.6 million shares under the 2022 Repurchase Program, which included 0.6 million shares received from the conclusion of our accelerated share repurchase ("ASR") agreement that we entered into on August 12, 2025. As of December 31, 2025, 2.7 million shares remained under the 2022 Repurchase Program. Further discussion relating to our ASR agreements can be found in Note 9 - Equity to the Consolidated Financial Statements and Supplementary Data, in the Annual Report on Form 10-K.

Repurchased shares may be used for general corporate purposes, including the issuance of shares for stock compensation plans and to offset the dilutive effect of the exercise of employee stock options. Our 2025 Repurchase Program and 2022 Repurchase Program have no expiration date and purchases under these programs may be made from time to time on the open market and in private transactions, depending on market conditions.

The following table provides information on our purchases of our outstanding common stock during the fourth quarter of 2025 pursuant to our 2022 Repurchase Program (column c). In addition to these purchases, the number of shares in column (a) include shares of common stock that are tendered to us to satisfy our employees’ tax withholding obligations in connection with the vesting of awards of restricted shares (we repurchase such shares based on their fair market value on the vesting date).

There were no other share repurchases during the quarter outside the repurchases noted below.

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Period	(a) Total Number of Shares Purchased	(b) Average Price Paid per Share		(c) Total Number of Shares Purchased as Part of Publicly Announced Programs	(d) Maximum Number of Shares that may yet be Purchased Under the Programs
Oct. 1 - Oct. 31, 2025 1	621,000	$	513.68	618,259	6.8	million
Nov. 1 - Nov. 30, 2025	4,763	497.02		—	6.8	million
Dec. 1 - Dec. 31, 2025 2	4,074,473	521.73		4,024,226	2.7	million
Total — Quarter	4,700,236	$	514.16	4,642,485	2.7	million

1 Includes 0.6 million shares received from the conclusion of our ASR agreement that we entered into on August 12, 2025.

2 Includes 4.0 million shares received from the initiation of our ASR agreement that we entered into on December 4, 2025. Average price paid per share information does not include this accelerated share repurchase transaction.

Equity Compensation Plan

For information on securities authorized under our equity compensation plans, see Item 12, Security Ownership of Certain Beneficial Owners and Management and Related Stockholder Matters.

Item 6. [Reserved]

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Item 7. Management’s Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations

The following Management’s Discussion and Analysis (“MD&A”) provides a narrative of the results of operations and financial condition of S&P Global Inc. (together with its consolidated subsidiaries, “S&P Global,” the “Company,” “we,” “us” or “our”) for the years ended December 31, 2025 and 2024, respectively. The MD&A provides information on factors that we believe are important in understanding our results of operations and comparability and certain other factors that may affect our future results. The MD&A should be read in conjunction with the consolidated financial statements and accompanying notes included in this Annual Report on Form 10-K for the year ended December 31, 2025, which have been prepared in accordance with accounting principles generally accepted in the U.S. (“U.S. GAAP”).

The MD&A includes the following sections:

•Overview

•Results of Operations

•Liquidity and Capital Resources

•Reconciliation of Non-GAAP Financial Information

•Critical Accounting Estimates

•Recently Issued or Adopted Accounting Standards

Certain of the statements below are forward-looking statements within the meaning of the Private Securities Litigation Reform Act of 1995. In addition, any projections of future results of operations and cash flows are subject to substantial uncertainty. See Forward-Looking Statements on page 4 of this report.

OVERVIEW

•Market Intelligence is a global provider of multi-asset-class data and analytics integrated with purpose-built workflow solutions.

•Ratings is an independent provider of credit ratings, research and analytics.

•Energy is a leading independent provider of information and benchmark prices for the energy and commodity markets.

•Mobility is a leading provider of solutions serving the full automotive value chain including vehicle manufacturers (Original Equipment Manufacturers or OEMs), automotive suppliers, mobility service providers, retailers, consumers, and finance and insurance companies.

•Indices is a global index provider maintaining a wide variety of valuation and index benchmarks for investment advisors, wealth managers and institutional investors.

As of May 2, 2023, we completed the sale of S&P Global Engineering Solutions (“Engineering Solutions”), a provider of engineering standards and related technical knowledge, and the results are included through that date. See Note 2 — Acquisitions and Divestitures to the consolidated financial statements under Item 8, Consolidated Financial Statements and Supplementary Data, in this Annual Report on Form 10-K for further discussion.

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Shareholder Return

During the three years ended December 31, 2025, we have returned approximately $15.1 billion to our shareholders through a combination of share repurchases and our quarterly dividends: we completed share repurchases of approximately $11.6 billion and distributed regular quarterly dividends totaling approximately $3.5 billion. Also, on January 14, 2026, the Board of Directors approved a quarterly common stock dividend of $0.97 per share.

Key Results


(in millions)	Year ended December 31,									% Change 1
	2025			2024			2023			’25 vs ’24	’24 vs ’23
Revenue	$	15,336		$	14,208		$	12,497		8%	14%
Operating profit 2	$	6,478		$	5,580		$	4,020		16%	39%
% Operating margin	42		%	39		%	32		%
Diluted earnings per share from net income	$	14.66		$	12.35		$	8.23		19%	50%

1 % changes in the tables throughout the MD&A are calculated off of the actual number, not the rounded number presented.

2 Operating profit for the year ended December 31, 2025 includes gain on dispositions of $273 million, employee severance charges of $157 million, disposition-related costs of $92 million, acquisition-related costs of $48 million, legal costs of $48 million, Executive Leadership Team transition costs, net of $42 million, lease impairments of $21 million, a statutorily required labor law accrual adjustment of $9 million, legal settlement recovery of $3 million and an asset write-off of $1 million. Operating profit for the year ended December 31, 2024 includes employee severance charges of $127 million, IHS Markit merger costs of $133 million, gain on dispositions of $59 million, legal costs of $20 million, disposition-related costs of $9 million, Executive Leadership Team transition costs of $8 million, a statutorily required bonus accrual adjustment of $7 million, lease impairments of $2 million and a net acquisition-related benefit of $1 million. Operating profit for the year ended December 31, 2023 includes IHS Markit merger costs of $236 million, employee severance charges of $184 million, acquisition-related costs of $77 million, loss on dispositions of $70 million, disposition-related costs of $24 million, lease impairments of $14 million, asset impairments of $9 million and an asset write-off of $1 million. Operating profit also includes amortization of intangibles from acquisitions of $1.1 billion for the years ended December 31, 2025, 2024 and 2023.

2025

Revenue increased 8% driven by increases at all of our reportable segments. The increase at Ratings was driven by growth in both non-transaction and transaction revenue. Non-transaction revenue increased primarily due to an increase in surveillance revenue and an increase in revenue at our Crisil subsidiary. Transaction revenue increased due to higher corporate bond ratings revenue, partially offset by lower bank loan ratings revenue. An increase in structured finance revenue driven by increased collateralized loan obligations (“CLOs”) issuance also contributed to transaction revenue growth. The increase at Market Intelligence was primarily due to subscription revenue growth in Data, Analytics & Insights which was favorably impacted by the acquisition of Visible Alpha in May of 2024 and With Intelligence in November of 2025, growth for work flow solutions in Enterprise Solutions and growth in RatingsXpress® and RatingsDirect®, partially offset by the unfavorable impact of the sale of Fincentric in August of 2024. The increase at Indices was primarily due to higher asset-linked fees revenue, higher exchange-traded derivative revenue and higher data subscription revenue. The increase at Energy was primarily due to continued demand for market data and market insights products driven by expanded product offerings to our existing customers under enterprise use contracts, an increase in sales usage-based royalties revenue and an increase in conference revenue driven by increased attendance at CERAWeek in 2025. The increase at Mobility was primarily due to growth within the Dealer and Financial businesses driven by continued new business growth within the Dealer business, strong underwriting volumes and market share growth within the Financial business and the favorable impact of improved contract terms. Foreign exchange rates had a favorable impact of less than 1 percentage point.

Operating profit increased 16%. Excluding the impact of a higher gain on dispositions in 2025 of 8 percentage points, higher IHS Markit merger costs in 2024 of 5 percentage points and higher amortization of intangibles from acquisitions in 2024 of 1 percentage point, partially offset by higher disposition-related costs in 2025 of 3 percentage points, acquisition-related costs in 2025 compared to a net acquisition-related benefit in 2024 of 2 percentage points, higher employee severance charges in 2025 of 1 percentage point, and higher lease impairments in 2025 of 1 percentage point, higher Executive Leadership Team costs in 2025 of 1 percentage point and higher legal costs in 2025 of 1 percentage point, operating profit increased 11%. The increase was primarily due to revenue growth and decreased incentives, partially offset by higher compensation costs driven by annual merit increases and additional headcount, and investments in strategic initiatives. Foreign exchange rates had a favorable impact of less than 1 percentage point.

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2024

Revenue increased 14% driven by increases at all of our reportable segments, partially offset by a decrease at Engineering Solutions due to its sale on May 2, 2023. The increase at Ratings was driven by growth in both transaction and non-transaction revenue. Transaction revenue increased primarily due to growth in corporate bond ratings revenue and bank loan ratings revenue driven by increased issuance volumes due to higher refinancing activity. Non-transaction revenue increased due to an increase in surveillance revenue and an increase in new entity credit ratings revenue. The increase at Market Intelligence was primarily due to subscription revenue growth in Data, Analytics & Insights, growth for work flow solutions at Enterprise Solutions and growth in RatingsXpress®, RatingsDirect® and Credit Analytics. Revenue growth at Energy was primarily due to continued demand for market data and market insights products. The increase at Indices was primarily due to higher asset-linked fees revenue, higher over-the-counter derivatives revenue, higher exchange-traded derivative revenue and higher data subscription revenue. The increase at Mobility was primarily due to new business growth within the Dealer business and strong underwriting volumes within the Financial business. Revenue at Market Intelligence was favorably impacted by the acquisition of Visible Alpha in May of 2024 and unfavorably impacted by the divestitures of Fincentric and the PrimeOne business in August of 2024 and November of 2024, respectively. Revenue at Energy was favorably impacted by the acquisition of World Hydrogen Leaders in May of 2024. Revenue at Mobility was favorably impacted by the acquisition of Market Scan in February of 2023. Foreign exchange rates had a favorable impact of less than 1 percentage point.

Operating profit increased 39%. Excluding the impact of a gain on dispositions in 2024 compared to a loss on dispositions, net in 2023 of 7 percentage points, higher IHS Markit merger costs in 2023 of 5 percentage points, a net acquisition-related benefit in 2024 compared to acquisition-related costs in 2023 of 4 percentage points, higher employee severance charges in 2023 of 3 percentage points, higher disposition-related costs in 2023 of 1 percentage point and higher lease impairments in 2023 of 1 percentage point, partially offset by higher amortization of intangibles from acquisitions in 2024 of 2 percentage points and legal costs in 2024 of 1 percentage point, operating profit increased 21%. The increase was primarily due to revenue growth, partially offset by increased incentives as a result of financial performance, higher compensation costs driven by annual merit increases and investments in strategic initiatives, and higher technology costs. Foreign exchange rates had a favorable impact of 1 percentage point.

Our Strategy

Our industry-leading benchmarks, differentiated data, and solutions provide a unique value proposition that provide customers with the ability to make more confident decisions and stay a step ahead. Our strategy focuses on three key objectives: to Advance market leadership, Expand high-growth adjacencies, and Amplify enterprise capabilities and integration of AI. In 2026, we are focused on delivering on these key strategic priorities.

Advance Market Leadership

•Delivering market-leading value proposition through best-in-class products, including world-class benchmarks and highly differentiated data, that are transforming the user experience, accelerating innovation, and optimizing go-to-market to enhance client retention and growth; and

•Expanding trusted, enduring client relationships through differentiated products and best-in-class client experiences that meet clients’ evolving needs.

Expand High-Growth Adjacencies

•Accelerating in high-growth adjacencies such as private markets, energy expansion, supply chain intelligence, wealth, and decentralized finance, alongside leading-edge AI and technology, such as blockchain and quantum computing.

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Amplify Enterprise Capabilities and AI

•Enabling growth, innovation, and operating leverage through our integrated operating model that removes siloes across enterprise data, enterprise technology, and client coverage teams.

•Driving cutting-edge innovation, in line with client expectations, by integrating and scaling new technology and AI into our products and our operations, and leveraging strategic collaborations and new potential commercial models;

•Enhancing our data estate by continuing to add differentiated data sets at scale, thereby enabling new revenue, efficiency, and time-to-market;

•Leveraging technology, process and skills innovation to empower our people, enhance productivity, and deliver enterprise impact via a people-forward culture, skills focus, people + AI process redesign, and aligned incentives; and

•Continually improving our ongoing commitment to risk management.

We believe that delivering on our key strategic priorities will create shareholder value through long-term profitable growth and we expect to continue to deliver targeted capital return to shareholders.

There can be no assurance that we will achieve success in implementing any one or more of these strategies as a variety of factors could unfavorably impact operating results, including prolonged difficulties in the global credit markets and a change in the regulatory environment affecting our businesses. See Item 1A, Risk Factors in this Annual Report on Form 10-K.

Further projections and discussion on our 2026 outlook for our segments can be found within “ – Results of Operations”.

RESULTS OF OPERATIONS

Consolidated Review


(in millions)	Year ended December 31,						% Change
	2025		2024		2023		’25 vs ’24	’24 vs ’23
Revenue	$	15,336	$	14,208	$	12,497	8%	14%
Expenses:
Operating-related expenses	4,563		4,361		4,141		5%	5%
Selling and general expenses	3,417		3,196		3,159		7%	1%
Depreciation and amortization	1,179		1,173		1,143		1%	3%
Total expenses	9,159		8,730		8,443		5%	3%
(Gain) loss on dispositions, net	(273)		(59)		70		N/M	N/M
Equity in Income on Unconsolidated Subsidiaries	(28)		(43)		(36)		(35)%	20%
Operating profit	6,478		5,580		4,020		16%	39%
Other (income) expense, net	(36)		(25)		15		(45)%	N/M
Interest expense, net	287		297		334		(3)%	(11)%

Provision for taxes on income	1,407		1,141		778		23%	47%
Net income	4,820		4,167		2,893		16%	44%

Less: net income attributable to noncontrolling interests	(349)		(315)		(267)		(11)%	(18)%

Net income attributable to S&P Global Inc.	$	4,471	$	3,852	$	2,626	16%	47%

N/M- Represents a change equal to or in excess of 100% or not meaningful

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Revenue


(in millions)	Year ended December 31,									% Change
	2025			2024			2023			’25 vs ’24	’24 vs ’23
Revenue	$	15,336		$	14,208		$	12,497		8%	14%

Subscription revenue	7,865			7,346			6,963			7%	5%
Non-subscription / transaction revenue	3,144			2,986			2,093			5%	43%
Non-transaction revenue	2,054			1,858			1,730			11%	7%
Asset-linked fees	1,206			1,046			859			15%	22%
Sales usage-based royalties	444			393			348			13%	13%
Recurring variable	623			579			504			8%	15%
% of total revenue:
Subscription revenue	51		%	52		%	55		%
Non-subscription / transaction revenue	21		%	21		%	17		%
Non-transaction revenue	13		%	13		%	14		%
Asset-linked fees	8		%	7		%	7		%
Sales usage-based royalties	3		%	3		%	3		%
Recurring variable	4		%	4		%	4		%

U.S. revenue	$	9,322		$	8,640		$	7,542		8%	15%
International revenue:
European region	3,531			3,256			2,822			8%	15%
Asia	1,640			1,491			1,375			10%	8%
Rest of the world	843			821			758			3%	8%
Total international revenue	$	6,014		$	5,568		$	4,955		8%	12%
% of total revenue:
U.S. revenue	61		%	61		%	60		%
International revenue	39		%	39		%	40		%

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2025

Revenue increased 8% as compared to 2024. Subscription revenue increased in 2025 primarily due to growth in Data, Analytics & Insights, growth for work flow solutions in Enterprise Solutions and growth in RatingsXpress®, RatingsDirect®, partially offset by the unfavorable impact of the sale of Fincentric in August of 2024 at Market Intelligence; continued demand for Energy market data and market insights products; new business growth within the Dealer business, strong underwriting volumes and market share growth within the Financial business, and the favorable impact of improved contract terms at Mobility; and higher data subscription revenue at Indices. Non-subscription / transaction revenue increased driven by growth in corporate bond ratings revenue and structured finance revenue at Ratings. Non-transaction revenue increased primarily due to an increase in surveillance revenue and an increase in revenue at our Crisil subsidiary at Ratings. Asset linked fees increased at Indices primarily due to higher levels of assets under management for ETFs and mutual funds. The increase in sales-usage based royalties was driven by higher exchange-traded derivative revenue at Indices and the licensing of our proprietary market data to commodity exchanges at Energy. Recurring variable revenue at Market Intelligence increased due to increased volumes. See “Segment Review” below for further information.

The favorable impact of foreign exchange rates increased revenue by less than 1 percentage point. This impact refers to constant currency comparisons estimated by recalculating current year results of foreign operations using the average exchange rate from the prior year.

2024

Revenue increased 14% as compared to 2023. Subscription revenue increased in 2024 primarily due to growth in Data, Analytics & Insights, growth for work flow solutions at Enterprise Solutions and growth in RatingsXpress®, RatingsDirect® and Credit Analytics, continued demand for Energy market data and market insights products and new business growth within the Dealer business and strong underwriting volumes within the Financial business at Mobility, partially offset by a decrease at Engineering Solutions due to its sale on May 2, 2023. Non-subscription / transaction revenue increased primarily due to growth in corporate bond ratings revenue and bank loan ratings revenue driven by increased issuance volumes due to higher refinancing activity. Non-transaction revenue increased due to an increase in surveillance revenue and an increase in new entity credit ratings revenue. Asset linked fees increased at Indices primarily due to higher levels of assets under management for ETFs and mutual funds and higher over-the-counter derivatives revenue. The increase in sales-usage based royalties was driven by higher exchange-traded derivative revenue at Indices and the licensing of our proprietary market data to commodity exchanges at Energy. Recurring variable revenue at Market Intelligence increased due to increased volumes. Revenue at Market Intelligence was favorably impacted by the acquisition of Visible Alpha in May of 2024 and unfavorably impacted by the divestitures of Fincentric and the PrimeOne business in August of 2024 and November of 2024, respectively. Revenue at Energy was favorably impacted by the acquisition of World Hydrogen Leaders in May of 2024. Revenue at Mobility was favorably impacted by the acquisition of Market Scan in February of 2023. See “Segment Review” below for further information.

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Total Expenses

The following tables provide an analysis by segment of our operating-related expenses and selling and general expenses for the years ended December 31, 2025 and 2024:


(in millions)	2025				2024				% Change
	Operating- related expenses		Selling and general expenses		Operating- related expenses		Selling and general expenses		Operating- related expenses	Selling and general expenses
Market Intelligence 1	$	2,082	$	1,215	$	2,016	$	1,186	3%	2%
Ratings 2	1,072		607		1,033		593		4%	2%
Energy 3	735		483		701		459		5%	5%
Mobility 4	530		519		487		493		9%	5%
Indices 5	271		265		245		237		10%	12%

Intersegment eliminations 6	(200)		—		(186)		—		8%	N/M
Total segments	4,490		3,089		4,296		2,968		5%	4%
Corporate Unallocated expense 7	73		328		65		228		12%	44%
	$	4,563	$	3,417	$	4,361	$	3,196	5%	7%

N/M - Represents a change equal to or in excess of 100% or not meaningful

1 In 2025, selling and general expenses include employee severance charges of $56 million, acquisition-related costs of $21 million, disposition-related costs of $10 million, Executive Leadership Team transition costs of $5 million and a statutorily required labor law accrual adjustment of $3 million. In 2024, selling and general expenses include employee severance charges of $77 million, IHS Markit merger costs of $36 million, a net acquisition-related benefit of $12 million and Executive Leadership Team transition costs of $3 million.

2 In 2025, selling and general expenses include legal costs of $42 million and employee severance charges of $17 million. In 2024, selling and general expenses include legal costs of $20 million, a statutorily required bonus accrual adjustment of $6 million and employee severance charges of $5 million.

3 In 2025, selling and general expenses include employee severance charges of $19 million and a statutorily required labor law accrual adjustment of $1 million. In 2024, selling and general expenses include IHS Markit merger costs of $14 million, employee severance charges of $13 million, asset write-offs of $1 million and disposition-related costs of $1 million.

4 In 2025, selling and general expenses include employee severance charges of $15 million, disposition-related costs of $7 million, Executive Leadership Team transition benefit of $4 million and a legal settlement recovery of $3 million. In 2024, selling and general expenses include employee severance charges of $7 million, IHS Markit merger costs of $4 million, acquisition-related costs of $2 million and a liability write-off of $1 million.

5 In 2025, selling and general expenses include employee severance charges of $4 million and acquisition-related costs of $1 million. In 2024, selling and general expenses include IHS Markit merger costs of $4 million and employee severance charges of $1 million.

6 Intersegment eliminations primarily relate to a royalty charged to Market Intelligence for the rights to use and distribute content and data developed by Ratings.

7 In 2025, selling and general expenses include disposition-related costs of $74 million, acquisition-related costs of $25 million, employee severance charges of $47 million, Executive Leadership Team transition costs of $41 million, lease impairments of $21 million, legal costs of $6 million, a statutorily required labor law accrual adjustment of $5 million and an asset write-off of $1 million. In 2024, selling and general expenses include IHS Markit merger costs of $75 million, employee severance charges of $24 million, acquisition-related costs of $8 million, disposition-related costs of $8 million, Executive Leadership Team transition costs of $5 million, lease impairments of $1 million and an asset write-off of $1 million.

Operating-Related Expenses

Operating-related expenses increased 5% as compared to 2024, primarily driven by higher compensation costs and higher technology costs, partially offset by a decrease in incentives and outside services expenses.

Intersegment eliminations primarily relate to a royalty charged to Market Intelligence for the rights to use and distribute content and data developed by Ratings.

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Selling and General Expenses

Selling and general expenses increased 7%. Excluding the impact of higher IHS Markit merger costs in 2024 of 4 percentage points, partially offset by higher disposition-related costs in 2025 of 2 percentage points, higher acquisition-related costs in 2025 of 1 percentage point, higher employee severance charges in 2025 of 1 percentage point, higher Executive leadership team transition costs in 2025 of 1 percentage point, higher lease impairment charges in 2025 of 1 percentage point and higher legal costs in 2025 of 1 percentage point, selling and general expenses increased 4%. The increase was primarily driven by higher compensation costs, partially offset by a decreased incentive costs.

Depreciation and Amortization

Depreciation and amortization was $1,179 million in 2025 compared to $1,173 million in 2024, primarily due to an increase in depreciation due to new asset purchases and higher intangible asset amortization driven by the acquisitions of Visible Alpha in May of 2024 and With Intelligence in November of 2025, partially offset by assets being fully amortized at Market Intelligence.

The following tables provide an analysis by segment of our operating-related expenses and selling and general expenses for the years ended December 31, 2024 and 2023:


(in millions)	2024				2023				% Change
	Operating- related expenses		Selling and general expenses		Operating- related expenses		Selling and general expenses		Operating- related expenses	Selling and general expenses
Market Intelligence 1	$	2,016	$	1,186	$	1,946	$	1,165	4%	2%
Ratings 2	1,033		593		963		468		7%	27%
Energy 3	701		459		644		461		9%	—%
Mobility 4	487		493		408		502		19%	(2)%
Indices 5	245		237		221		219		11%	8%
Engineering Solutions	—		—		85		27		N/M	N/M
Intersegment eliminations 6	(186)		—		(177)		—		5%	N/M
Total segments	4,296		2,968		4,090		2,842		5%	4%
Corporate Unallocated expense 8	65		228		51		317		27%	(28)%
	$	4,361	$	3,196	$	4,141	$	3,159	5%	1%

N/M - Represents a change equal to or in excess of 100% or not meaningful

1 In 2024, selling and general expenses include employee severance charges of $77 million, IHS Markit merger costs of $36 million, a net acquisition-related benefit of $12 million and Executive Leadership Team transition costs of $3 million. In 2023, selling and general expenses include employee severance charges of $90 million, acquisition-related costs of $69 million, IHS Markit merger costs of $49 million, an asset impairment of $5 million and an asset write-off of $1 million.

2 In 2024, selling and general expenses include legal costs of $20 million, a statutorily required bonus accrual adjustment of $6 million and employee severance charges of $5 million. In 2023, selling and general expenses include employee severance charges of $10 million and an asset impairment of $1 million.

3 In 2024, selling and general expenses include IHS Markit merger costs of $14 million, employee severance charges of $13 million, asset write-offs of $1 million and disposition-related costs of $1 million. In 2023, selling and general expenses include IHS Markit merger costs of $35 million, employee severance charges of $26 million and acquisition-related costs of $2 million.

4 In 2024, selling and general expenses include employee severance charges of $7 million, IHS Markit merger costs of $4 million, acquisition-related costs of $2 million and a liability write-off of $1 million. In 2023, selling and general expenses include employee severance charges of $9 million, IHS Markit merger costs of $3 million and acquisition-related costs of $2 million.

5 In 2024, selling and general expenses include IHS Markit merger costs of $4 million and employee severance charges of $1 million. In 2023, selling and general expenses include employee severance charges of $5 million and IHS Markit merger costs of $4 million.

6 Intersegment eliminations primarily relate to a royalty charged to Market Intelligence for the rights to use and distribute content and data developed by Ratings.

7 In 2024, selling and general expenses include IHS Markit merger costs of $75 million, employee severance charges of $24 million, acquisition-related costs of $8 million, disposition-related costs of $8 million, Executive Leadership Team transition costs of $5 million, lease impairments of $1 million and an asset write-off of $1 million. In 2023, selling and general expenses include IHS Markit merger costs of $147 million, employee severance charges of $43 million, disposition-related costs of $24 million, lease impairments of $14 million and acquisition-related costs of $4 million.

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Operating-Related Expenses

Operating-related expenses increased 5% as compared to 2023, primarily driven by higher compensation costs, increased incentives and higher technology costs, partially offset by a decrease at Engineering Solutions due to its sale on May 2, 2023.

Intersegment eliminations primarily relate to a royalty charged to Market Intelligence for the rights to use and distribute content and data developed by Ratings.

Selling and General Expenses

Selling and general expenses increased 1% as compared to 2023. Excluding the impact of higher IHS Markit merger costs in 2023 of 4 percentage points, higher acquisition-related costs in 2023 of 3 percentage points, higher employee severance charges in 2023 of 3 percentage points and higher disposition-related costs in 2023 of 1 percentage point, partially offset by legal costs in 2024 of 1 percentage point, selling and general expenses increased 11%. The increase was primarily driven by increased incentives and higher compensation costs, partially offset by a decrease at Engineering Solutions due to its sale on May 2, 2023.

Depreciation and Amortization

Depreciation and amortization was $1,173 million in 2024 compared to $1,143 million in 2023, primarily due to higher intangible asset amortization driven by the acquisition of Visible Alpha in May of 2024.

(Gain) Loss on Dispositions, net

During the year ended December 31, 2025, we recorded a pre-tax gain of $273 million related to the following dispositions, which was included in (Gain) loss on dispositions, net in the consolidated statement of income:

•In October of 2025, we recorded a pre-tax gain of $270 million ($187 million after-tax) in (Gain) loss on dispositions, net in the consolidated statements of income related to the sale of the OSTTRA, including the impact of accumulated other comprehensive income related to our investment.

•In May of 2025, we recorded a pre-tax gain of $3 million ($2 million after-tax) in (Gain) loss on dispositions, net in the consolidated statements of income related to the sale of the Fincentric in August of 2024 in our Market Intelligence segment.

During the year ended December 31, 2024, we completed the following dispositions that resulted in a pre-tax gain of $59 million, which was included in (Gain) loss on dispositions, net in the consolidated statement of income:

•In November of 2024, we recorded a pre-tax gain of $38 million ($27 million after-tax) in (Gain) loss on dispositions, net in the consolidated statements of income related to the sale of the PrimeOne business in our Market Intelligence segment.

•In August of 2024, we recorded a pre-tax gain of $21 million ($12 million after-tax) in (Gain) loss on dispositions, net in the consolidated statements of income related to the sale of Fincentric in our Market Intelligence segment.

During the year ended December 31, 2023, we completed the following disposition and received the following contingent payment that resulted in a pre-tax loss of $70 million, which was included in (Gain) loss on dispositions, net in the consolidated statement of income:

•During the year ended December 31, 2023, we recorded a pre-tax loss of $120 million in (Gain) loss on disposition, net and disposition-related costs of $16 million in selling and general expenses in the consolidated statements of income ($182 million after-tax, net of a release of a deferred tax liability of $157 million) related to the sale of Engineering Solutions.

•In the first quarter of 2023, we received a contingent payment following the sale of Leveraged Commentary and Data (“LCD”) along with a related family of leveraged loan indices in June of 2022. The contingent payment was payable six months following the closing upon the achievement of certain conditions related to the transition of LCD customer relationships. During the year ended December 31, 2023, the contingent payment resulted in a pre-tax gain of $46 million ($34 million after-tax) related to the sale of LCD in our Market Intelligence segment and $4 million ($3 million after-tax) related to the sale of a family of leveraged loan indices in our Indices segment.

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Operating Profit

We consider operating profit to be an important measure for evaluating our operating performance and we evaluate operating profit for each of the reportable business segments in which we operate.

We internally manage our operations by reference to operating profit with economic resources allocated primarily based on each segment's contribution to operating profit. Segment operating profit is defined as operating profit before Corporate Unallocated expense and Equity in Income on Unconsolidated Subsidiaries.

The table below reconciles segment operating profit to total operating profit:


(in millions)	Year ended December 31,						% Change
	2025		2024		2023		’25 vs ’24	’24 vs ’23
Market Intelligence 1	$	991	$	875	$	714	13%	22%
Ratings 2	3,013		2,707		1,864		11%	45%
Energy 3	943		845		704		12%	20%
Mobility 4	378		312		260		21%	20%
Indices 5	1,271		1,103		925		15%	19%
Engineering Solutions 6	—		—		19		N/M	N/M
Total segment operating profit	6,596		5,842		4,486		13%	30%
Corporate Unallocated expense 7	(146)		(305)		(502)		52%	39%
Equity in Income on Unconsolidated Subsidiaries 8	28		43		36		(35)%	20%
Total operating profit	$	6,478	$	5,580	$	4,020	16%	39%

N/M - Represents a change equal to or in excess of 100% or not meaningful

1 2025 includes employee severance charges of $56 million, acquisition-related costs of $21 million, disposition-related costs of $10 million, Executive Leadership Team transition costs of $5 million, a statutorily required labor law accrual adjustment of $3 million and a gain on disposition of $3 million. 2024 includes employee severance charges of $77 million, gain on dispositions of $59 million, IHS Markit merger costs of $36 million, a net acquisition-related benefit of $12 million and Executive Leadership Team transition costs of $3 million. 2023 includes employee severance charges of $90 million, acquisition-related costs of $69 million, IHS Markit merger costs of $49 million, a gain on disposition of $46 million, an asset impairment of $5 million and an asset write-off of $1 million. 2025, 2024 and 2023 include amortization of intangibles from acquisitions of $588 million, $591 million and $561 million, respectively.

2 2025 includes legal costs of $42 million and employee severance charges of $17 million. 2024 includes legal costs of $20 million, a statutorily required bonus accrual adjustment of $6 million and employee severance charges of $5 million. 2023 includes employee severance charges of $10 million and an asset impairment of $1 million. 2025, 2024 and 2023, include amortization of intangibles from acquisitions of $6 million, $14 million and $8 million, respectively.

3 2025 includes employee severance charges of $19 million and a statutorily required labor law accrual adjustment of $1 million. 2024 includes IHS Markit merger costs of $14 million, employee severance charges of $13 million, asset write-offs of $1 million and disposition-related costs of $1 million. 2023 includes IHS Markit merger costs of $35 million, employee severance charges of $26 million and acquisition-related costs of $2 million. 2025, 2024 and 2023 include amortization of intangibles from acquisitions of $130 million, $130 million and $131 million, respectively.

4 2025 includes employee severance charges of $15 million, disposition-related costs of $7 million, Executive Leadership Team transition benefit of $4 million and a legal settlement recovery of $3 million. 2024 includes employee severance charges of $7 million, IHS Markit merger costs of $4 million, acquisition-related costs of $2 million and a liability write-off of $1 million. 2023 includes employee severance charges of $9 million, IHS Markit merger costs of $3 million and acquisition-related costs of $2 million. 2025, 2024 and 2023 include amortization of intangibles from acquisitions of $303 million, $303 million and $301 million, respectively.

5 2025 includes employee severance charges of $4 million and acquisition-related costs of $1 million. 2024 includes IHS Markit merger costs of $4 million, a loss on disposition of $1 million and employee severance charges of $1 million. 2023 includes employee severance charges of $5 million, a gain on disposition of $4 million and IHS Markit merger costs of $4 million. 2025, 2024 and 2023 include amortization of intangibles from acquisitions of $37 million, $36 million and $36 million, respectively.

6 2023 includes amortization of intangibles from acquisitions of $1 million.

7 2025 includes a gain on disposition of $270 million, disposition-related costs of $74 million, acquisition-related costs of $25 million, employee severance charges of $47 million, Executive Leadership Team transition costs of $41 million, lease impairments of $21 million, legal costs of $6 million, a statutorily required labor law accrual adjustment of $5 million and an asset write-off of $1 million. 2024 includes IHS Markit merger costs of $75 million, employee severance charges of $24 million, acquisition-related costs of $8 million, disposition-related costs of $8 million, Executive Leadership Team transition costs of $5 million, gain on disposition of $2 million, lease impairments of $1 million and an asset write-off of $1 million. 2023 includes IHS Markit merger costs of $147 million, a loss on disposition of $120 million, employee severance charges of $43 million, disposition-related costs of $24 million, lease

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impairments of $14 million and acquisition-related costs of $4 million. 2025, 2024 and 2023 include amortization of intangibles from acquisitions of $4 million, $3 million and $3 million, respectively.

8 2023 includes an asset impairment of $2 million. 2025, 2024 and 2023 includes amortization of intangibles from acquisitions of $41 million, $56 million and $56 million, respectively.

2025

Segment Operating Profit — Segment operating profit increased 13% as compared to 2024. Excluding the impact of a higher gain on dispositions in 2024 of 1 percentage point and higher acquisition-related costs in 2025 of 1 percentage point, partially offset by IHS Markit merger costs in 2024 of 1 percentage point, segment operating profit increased 12%. The increase was primarily due to revenue growth and decreased incentive costs, partially offset by higher compensation costs driven by annual merit increases and additional headcount, and investments in strategic initiatives. See “Segment Review” below for further information.

Corporate Unallocated Expense — Corporate Unallocated expense includes costs for corporate functions, select initiatives, unoccupied office space and Kensho, included in selling and general expenses. Corporate Unallocated expense decreased 52% compared to 2024. Excluding the impact of higher disposition-related costs in 2025 of 17 percentage points, higher acquisition-related costs in 2025 of 5 percentage points, Executive Leadership Team transition costs in 2025 of 10 percentage points, lease impairments in 2025 of 5 percentage points, employee severance changes in 2025 of 6 percentage points, legal costs in 2025 of 2 percentage points and a statutorily required labor law accrual adjustment in 2025 of 1 percentage points, partially offset by IHS merger costs in 2024 of 20 percentage points and a higher gain on dispositions in 2025 of 72 percentage points, Corporate Unallocated expense increased 6% primarily due to higher compensation costs in 2025.

Equity in Income on Unconsolidated Subsidiaries — The Company held an investment in a 50/50 joint venture arrangement with shared control with CME Group that combined each company’s post-trade services into a joint venture, OSTTRA. The joint venture provided trade processing and risk mitigation operations and incorporated CME Group’s optimization businesses (Traiana, TriOptima, and Reset) and the Company’s MarkitSERV business. The combination was intended to increase operating efficiencies of both businesses to more effectively service clients with enhanced platforms and services for OTC markets across interest rate, FX, equity, and credit asset classes. Equity in Income on Unconsolidated Subsidiaries includes the OSTTRA joint venture acquired in connection with the merger with IHS Markit. Equity in Income on Unconsolidated Subsidiaries was $28 million for the year ended December 31, 2025 and $43 million for the year ended December 31, 2024.

On October 10, 2025, the Company and CME Group completed the sale of OSTTRA to Kohlberg Kravis Roberts & Co. (“KKR”), a leading global investment firm. The terms of the deal for OSTTRA equaled total enterprise value at $3.1 billion, subject to customary purchase price adjustments, which will be divided evenly between the Company and CME Group pursuant to the 50/50 joint venture. We received proceeds from the sale of $1.5 billion in cash ($1.4 billion after-tax), subject to purchase price adjustments. During the year ended December 31, 2025, we recorded a pre-tax gain of $270 million ($187 million after-tax) for the Company, including the impact of accumulated other comprehensive income related to our investment.

Foreign exchange rates had a favorable impact on operating profit of less than 1 percentage point. This impact refers to currency comparisons and the remeasurement of monetary assets and liabilities. Currency impacts are estimated by re-calculating current year results of foreign operations using the average exchange rate from the prior year. Remeasurement impacts are based on the variance between current-year and prior-year foreign exchange rate fluctuations on assets and liabilities denominated in currencies other than the individual business’s functional currency.

2024

Segment Operating Profit — Segment operating profit increased 30% as compared to 2023. Excluding the impact of a net acquisition-related benefit in 2024 compared to acquisition-related costs in 2023 of 7 percentage points, higher employee severance costs in 2023 of 3 percentage points, higher IHS Markit merger costs in 2023 of 3 percentage points, a higher gain on dispositions in 2024 of 1 percentage point, partially offset by higher amortization of intangibles from acquisitions in 2024 of 3 percentage points, legal costs in 2024 of 2 percentage points and a statutorily required bonus accrual adjustment in 2024 of 1 percentage point, segment operating profit increased 22%. The increase was primarily due to revenue growth, partially offset by increased incentives as a result of financial performance, higher compensation costs driven by annual merit increases and higher technology costs. See “Segment Review” below for further information.

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costs in 2023 of 5 percentage points, higher employee severance costs in 2023 of 1 percentage point, higher lease impairments in 2023 of 1 percentage point and higher disposition-related costs in 2023 of 1 percentage point, Corporate Unallocated expense increased 23% primarily due to higher incentives and compensation costs.

Equity in Income on Unconsolidated Subsidiaries— The Company held an investment in a 50/50 joint venture arrangement with shared control with CME Group that combined each of the company’s post-trade services into a new joint venture, OSTTRA. The joint venture provides trade processing and risk mitigation operations and incorporates CME Group’s optimization businesses (Traiana, TriOptima, and Reset) and the Company’s MarkitSERV business. The combination was intended to increase operating efficiencies of both the company’s business to more effectively service clients with enhanced platforms and services for OTC markets across interest rate, FX, equity, and credit asset classes. Equity in Income on Unconsolidated Subsidiaries includes the OSTTRA joint venture acquired in connection with the merger with IHS Markit. Equity in Income on Unconsolidated Subsidiaries was $43 million for the year ended December 31, 2024 and $36 million for the year ended December 31, 2023.

Foreign exchange rates had a favorable impact on operating profit of 1 percentage point. This impact refers to currency comparisons and the remeasurement of monetary assets and liabilities. Currency impacts are estimated by re-calculating current year results of foreign operations using the average exchange rate from the prior year. Remeasurement impacts are based on the variance between current-year and prior-year foreign exchange rate fluctuations on assets and liabilities denominated in currencies other than the individual businesses functional currency.

Other (Income) Expense, net

Other (income) expense, net primarily includes the net periodic benefit cost for our retirement and post retirement plans. Other income, net for 2025 was $36 million, other income, net in 2024 was $25 million and other expense, net for 2023 was $15 million. During 2023, lump sum withdrawals exceeded the combined total anticipated annual service and interest cost of our U.S. retirement plan, triggering the recognition of a non-cash pre-tax settlement charge of $23 million. Excluding amortization of intangibles from acquisitions in 2024 $6 million, and a pre-tax settlement charge in 2023, other (income) expense, net was $36 million, $31 million, $9 million for 2025, 2024, 2023, respectively. The increase in other income, net in 2025 compared to 2024 was primarily due to gains on our mark-to-market investments in 2025. The increase in other (income) expense, net in 2024 compared to 2023 was primarily due to an increase in net periodic benefit cost in 2024 and gains on our mark-to-market investments in 2024 compared to losses in 2023.

Interest Expense, net

Interest expense, net decreased $10 million to $287 million in 2025 compared to 2024 primarily due to higher interest income from invested cash. Interest expense, net decreased $37 million in 2024 compared to 2023 primarily due to a benefit from our net investment hedge program, reduced expense related to commercial paper borrowings in 2024 and higher interest income from invested cash. See Note 5 - Debt to the consolidated financial statements under Item 8, Consolidated Financial Statements and Supplementary Data, in this Annual Report on Form 10-K for further discussion.

Provision for Income Taxes

Our effective tax rate was 22.6%, 21.5% and 21.2% for 2025, 2024 and 2023, respectively. Fluctuation in tax rates by year is primarily due to tax charge on divestitures and change in mix of income by jurisdiction.

The Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (“OECD”) introduced an international tax framework under Pillar Two that provides for a global minimum tax of 15%, which is implemented through local legislation in participating jurisdictions. The effects of Pillar Two taxes enacted in jurisdictions in which we operate have been reflected in our results and did not have a material impact on our consolidated financial statements.

On January 5, 2026, the OECD issued administrative guidance outlining a framework under which U.S.-parented groups may be excluded from the application of the OECD’s global minimum tax rules. Each member jurisdiction will need to adopt this guidance into local law, and the timing and manner of adoption may vary. We are continuing to monitor developments related to this guidance and will evaluate the impact on our financial statements as additional information becomes available.

Segment Review

Market Intelligence

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On January 12, 2026, we completed the sale of the Enterprise Data Management and thinkFolio businesses within our Market Intelligence segment to Symphony Technology Group (“STG”), a private equity firm focused on building and scaling market-leading software, data and analytics companies. The transaction is not expected to have a material impact to our consolidated financials statements.

On November 25, 2025, we completed the acquisition of With Intelligence from Motive Partners for $1.8 billion. The acquisition is part of our Market Intelligence segment. Combining With Intelligence's proprietary data, benchmarks and workflow solutions with S&P Global’s trusted expertise and brand in private markets intelligence and analytics, the company creates one of the most comprehensive data offerings for alternatives and private markets participants. The acquisition of With Intelligence is not material to our consolidated financial statements.

On November 10, 2025, we completed the acquisition of the Automatic Identification System (AIS) data services business of ORBCOMM Inc. The AIS business is a leading provider of satellite data services used to track and monitor vessels, enhancing maritime visibility and delivering critical insights that support business intelligence and decision-making for government and commercial clients worldwide. This acquisition is part of our Market Intelligence segment. The acquisition of AIS is not material to our consolidated financial statements.

On June 6, 2025, we completed the acquisition of TeraHelix, a privately held financial technology firm. TeraHelix helps solve complex, enterprise-scale data challenges by providing frameworks that structure data models for smooth interoperability across platforms, systems and storage architectures. This acquisition is part of our Market Intelligence segment and strengthens our customer-centric approach to data, technology, and AI by meaningfully enhancing the ability to link datasets across classes and platforms. The acquisition of TeraHelix is not material to our consolidated financial statements.

On December 31, 2024, we completed the acquisition of ProntoNLP, a leading provider of generative artificial intelligence tooling, allowing users to derive differentiated insights from unstructured and structured data. The acquisition is part of our Market Intelligence segment and its intellectual property is expected to power broader enterprise-wide applications. ProntoNLP’s proprietary models and LLM-based signal tools will bolster S&P Global’s textual data analytics capabilities. The acquisition of ProntoNLP is not material to our consolidated financial statements.

On November 1, 2024, we completed the sale of the PrimeOne business, our outsourced technology platform servicing the global prime finance business. During the year ended December 31, 2024, we recorded a pre-tax gain of $38 million ($27 million after-tax) in (Gain) loss on dispositions, net in the consolidated statement of income related to the sale of PrimeOne in our Market Intelligence segment.

On August 15, 2024, we completed the sale of Fincentric, formerly known as Markit Digital. This sale followed our announced intent to explore strategic opportunities for Fincentric in February of 2024. Fincentric was S&P Global’s premier digital solutions provider focused on developing mobile applications and websites for retail brokerages and other financial institutions. Fincentric specializes in designing cutting-edge financial data visualizations, interfaces and investor experiences. Fincentric was acquired by S&P Global through the merger with IHS Markit and was part of our Market Intelligence segment. During the year ended December 31, 2025, we recorded a pre-tax gain of $3 million ($2 million after-tax) in (Gain) loss on dispositions, net in the consolidated statement of income related to the sale of Fincentic in August of 2024. During the year ended December 31, 2024, we recorded a pre-tax gain of $21 million ($12 million after-tax) in (Gain) loss on dispositions, net in the consolidated statement of income related to the sale of Fincentric in our Market Intelligence segment.

On May 1, 2024, we completed the acquisition of Visible Alpha, the financial technology provider of deep industry and segment consensus data creating a premium offering of fundamental investment research capabilities on Market Intelligence’s Capital IQ Pro platform. The acquisition is part of our Market Intelligence segment and further enhances the depth and breadth of the overall Visible Alpha and S&P Capital IQ Pro offering. The acquisition of Visible Alpha is not material to our consolidated financial statements.

In January of 2023, we completed the acquisition of ChartIQ, a premier charting provider for the financial services industry. ChartIQ is a professional grade charting solution that allows users to visualize data with a fully interactive web-based library that works seamlessly across web, mobile and desktop. It provides advanced capabilities including trade visualization, options analytics, technical analysis and more. Additionally, ChartIQ allows clients to visualize vendor-supplied data combined with their own proprietary content, alternative datasets or analytics. The acquisition further enhances our S&P Capital IQ Pro

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platform and other workflow solutions to provide the industry with leading visualization capabilities. The acquisition of ChartIQ is not material to our consolidated financial statements.

In January of 2023, we completed the acquisition of TruSight Solutions LLC (“TruSight”) a provider of third-party vendor risk assessments. The acquisition was integrated into our Market Intelligence segment and further expanded the breadth and depth of S&P Global’s third party vendor risk management solutions by offering high-quality validated assessment data to clients designed to reduce further the vendor due diligence burden on service providers to the financial services industry. The acquisition of TruSight is not material to our consolidated financial statements.

In the first quarter of 2023, we received a contingent payment following the sale of Leveraged Commentary and Data (“LCD”) that resulted in a pre-tax gain of $46 million ($34 million after-tax) which was included in (Gain) loss on dispositions, net in the consolidated statements of income.

See Note 2 - Acquisitions and Divestitures to the consolidated financial statements under Item 8, Consolidated Financial Statements and Supplementary Data, in this Annual Report on Form 10-K for further discussion.

Market Intelligence includes the following business lines:

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The following table provides revenue and segment operating profit information for the years ended December 31:


(in millions)	Year ended December 31,									% Change
	2025			2024			2023			’25 vs ’24		’24 vs ’23
Revenue	$	4,916		$	4,645		$	4,376		6	%	6	%

Subscription revenue	$	4,107		$	3,882		$	3,685		6	%	5	%
Recurring variable revenue	$	623		$	579		$	504		8	%	15	%
Non-subscription revenue	$	186		$	184		$	187		2	%	(2)	%
% of total revenue:
Subscription revenue	83		%	84		%	84		%
Recurring variable revenue	13		%	12		%	12		%
Non-subscription revenue	4		%	4		%	4		%

U.S. revenue	$	2,924		$	2,766		$	2,600		6	%	6	%
International revenue	$	1,992		$	1,879		$	1,776		6	%	6	%
% of total revenue:
U.S. revenue	59		%	60		%	59		%
International revenue	41		%	40		%	41		%

Operating profit 1	$	991		$	875		$	714		13	%	22	%
% Operating margin	20		%	19		%	16		%

12025 includes employee severance charges of $56 million, acquisition-related costs of $21 million, disposition-related costs of $10 million, Executive Leadership Team transition costs of $5 million, a statutorily required labor law accrual adjustment of $3 million and a gain on disposition of $3 million. 2024 includes employee severance charges of $77 million, gain on dispositions of $59 million, IHS Markit merger costs of $36 million, a net acquisition-related benefit of $12 million and Executive Leadership Team transition costs of $3 million. 2023 includes employee severance charges of $90 million, acquisition-related costs of $69 million, IHS Markit merger costs of $49 million, a gain on disposition of $46 million, an asset impairment of $5 million and an asset write-off of $1 million. 2025, 2024 and 2023 include amortization of intangibles from acquisitions of $588 million, $591 million and $561 million, respectively.

2025

Revenue increased 6% primarily due to subscription revenue growth in Data, Analytics & Insights which was favorably impacted by the acquisitions of Visible Alpha in May of 2024 and With Intelligence in November of 2025, growth for work flow solutions in Enterprise Solutions, and growth in RatingsXpress® and RatingsDirect®, partially offset by the unfavorable impact of the sale of Fincentric in August of 2024. An increase in recurring variable revenue due to increased volumes also contributed to revenue growth. Foreign exchange rates had a favorable impact of less than 1 percentage point.

Operating profit increased 13%. Excluding the impact of a gain on dispositions in 2024 of 3 percentage points, a net acquisition-related cost in 2025 compared to acquisition-related benefit in 2024 of 2 percentage points, partially offset by IHS merger costs in 2024 of 2 percentage points, higher employee severance charges in 2024 of 1 percentage point, operating profit increased 11% primarily due to revenue growth, lower outside services expenses and decreased incentives, partially offset by higher compensation costs driven by annual merit increases and additional headcount and expenses associated with the acquisition of Visible Alpha. Foreign exchange rates had a favorable impact of 2 percentage points.

2024

Revenue increased 6% primarily due to subscription revenue growth in Data, Analytics & Insights, growth for work flow solutions at Enterprise Solutions and growth in RatingsXpress®, RatingsDirect® and Credit Analytics, partially offset by increased cancellations during the year ended December 31, 2024. Revenue growth was favorably impacted by the acquisition of Visible Alpha in May of 2024 and unfavorably impacted by the divestitures of Fincentric and the PrimeOne business in August of 2024 and November of 2024, respectively. An increase in recurring variable revenue due to increased volumes also contributed to revenue growth. Foreign exchange rates had a favorable impact of less than 1 percentage point.

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Operating profit increased 22%. Excluding the impact of a net acquisition-related benefit in 2024 compared to acquisition-related costs in 2023 of 16 percentage points, a higher gain on dispositions in 2024 of 2 percentage points, higher employee severance charges in 2023 of 2 percentage points, higher IHS Markit merger costs in 2023 of 2 percentage points and an asset impairment in 2023 of 1 percentage point, partially offset by higher amortization of intangibles from acquisitions in 2024 of 6 percentage points, operating profit increased 5% primarily due to revenue growth, partially offset by higher compensation costs driven by annual merit increases, increased incentives, increased technology costs and expenses associated with the acquisition of Visible Alpha. Foreign exchange rates had a favorable impact of 3 percentage points.

Industry Highlights and Outlook

Key strategic initiatives for Market Intelligence in 2026 include developing new products and enhancements leveraging technology investments and geographic expansion.

Legal and Regulatory Environment

The market for data, analytical capabilities, research services and software services is intensely competitive, ranging from established firms to fast evolving market disruptors. Market Intelligence competes domestically and internationally based on a number of factors, including the quality and range of its data, analytical capabilities, research services, software services, client service, reputation, price, geographic scope, and technological innovation.

Market Intelligence is subject to global regulation, particularly in the European Union, the U.K., the U.S. and increasingly so in other jurisdictions. Several laws and regulations in the European Union, the U.K. and the U.S. have been adopted but not yet implemented, or have been proposed or are being considered, to which Market Intelligence, or its clients, will or may become subject, including laws and regulations related to pricing providers, sustainability, credit rating data, data privacy and cyber security and technology and organizational resilience. For example, the EU passed the Digital Operational Resilience Act in December 2022 (“DORA”), which became effective in early 2025. DORA imposes operational resilience and cyber security standards and obligations, including technical and organizational standards and responsibilities which require technology and/or organizational investment, upon (i) many Market Intelligence financial market clients, who aim to pass such obligations onto vendors like Market Intelligence, and (ii) information and communications technology providers designated by the EU as “Critical Third Party Providers,” which in certain instances includes Market Intelligence. The U.K. Financial Conduct Authority has published a consultation on establishing a UK Operational Resilience Framework, which if adopted may impact our Market Intelligence financial market clients who may look to pass such obligations onto vendors like Market Intelligence. In addition, from time to time, government and self-regulatory agencies in jurisdictions where we operate conduct market studies on our markets, which may result in the imposition of remedies that impact our business.

Increasing use of AI across our Market Intelligence business subjects Market Intelligence to evolving and potentially complex legal requirements. For example, the European Union Artificial Intelligence Act ("EU AI Act"), adopted in 2024, establishes a legal framework for the development and use of AI in the EU. The EU AI Act classifies AI systems by risk and imposes strict requirements on high-risk applications. We continue to evaluate the potential implications for our products and services and practice to ensure compliance with the EU AI Act, including transparency and data governance obligations in respect of any AI we utilize. The EU AI Act may result in additional compliance obligations particularly as relates to our operations that leverage AI technologies.

At this time, the exact impact on Market Intelligence of any such recently adopted or proposed laws or regulations, or market studies, remains uncertain, but they could increase the regulatory exposure of Market Intelligence and are anticipated to increase the costs and legal risks relating to certain of Market Intelligence’s activities. Furthermore such laws and regulations may adversely affect the ability of Market Intelligence to provide its products and services, or result in changes in the demand for its products and services. If Market Intelligence fails to comply with any such laws or regulations, it could be subject to significant litigation, civil or criminal penalties, monetary damages, regulatory enforcement actions or fines. Regulatory developments may also present commercial opportunities to Market Intelligence to develop further or different services to enable better compliance by its clients.

For a further discussion of competitive and other risks inherent in our Market Intelligence business, see Item 1A, Risk Factors, in this Annual Report on Form 10-K. For a further discussion of the legal and regulatory environment in our Market Intelligence business, see Note 13 – Commitments and Contingencies to the consolidated financial statements under Item 8, Consolidated Financial Statements and Supplementary Data, in this Annual Report on Form 10-K.

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Ratings

On November 7, 2025, Crisil, included within our Ratings segment, completed the acquisition of McKinsey PriceMetrix Co., a leading provider of performance benchmarking and data-driven insights for the wealth management industry. This acquisition expands Crisil’s benchmarking offerings across the Wealth Management value chain. The acquisition of McKinsey PriceMetrix Co. is not material to our consolidated financial statements.

Ratings disaggregates its revenue between transaction and non-transaction. Transaction revenue primarily includes fees associated with:

•ratings related to new issuance of corporate and government debt instruments, as well as structured finance debt instruments; and

•bank loan ratings.

Non-transaction revenue primarily includes fees for surveillance of a credit rating, annual fees for customer relationship-based pricing programs, fees for entity credit ratings and global research and analytics at Crisil. Non-transaction revenue also includes an intersegment royalty charged to Market Intelligence for the rights to use and distribute content and data developed by Ratings. Royalty revenue for 2025, 2024 and 2023 was $172 million, $162 million and $154 million, respectively.

The following table provides revenue and segment operating profit information for the years ended December 31:


(in millions)	Year ended December 31,									% Change
	2025			2024			2023			’25 vs ’24		’24 vs ’23
Revenue	$	4,724		$	4,370		$	3,332		8	%	31	%

Transaction revenue	$	2,470		$	2,326		$	1,425		6	%	63	%
Non-transaction revenue	$	2,254		$	2,044		$	1,907		10	%	7	%
% of total revenue:
Transaction revenue	52		%	53		%	43		%
Non-transaction revenue	48		%	47		%	57		%

U.S. revenue	$	2,711		$	2,500		$	1,824		8	%	37	%
International revenue	$	2,013		$	1,870		$	1,508		8	%	24	%
% of total revenue:
U.S. revenue	57		%	57		%	55		%
International revenue	43		%	43		%	45		%

Operating profit 1	$	3,013		$	2,707		$	1,864		11	%	45	%
% Operating margin	64		%	62		%	56		%

12025 includes legal costs of $42 million and employee severance charges of $17 million. 2024 includes legal costs of $20 million, a statutorily required bonus accrual adjustment of $6 million and employee severance charges of $5 million. 2023 includes employee severance charges of $10 million and an asset impairment of $1 million. 2025, 2024 and 2023 include amortization of intangibles from acquisitions of $6 million, $14 million and $8 million, respectively.

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2025

Revenue increased 8%, with a favorable impact from foreign exchange rates of 1 percentage point. Transaction revenue increased primarily due to higher corporate bond ratings revenue, partially offset by lower bank loan ratings revenue. An increase in structured finance revenue driven by increased collateralized loan obligations (“CLOs”) issuance also contributed to transaction revenue growth. Non-transaction revenue increased primarily due to an increase in surveillance revenue and an increase in revenue at our Crisil subsidiary. Transaction and non-transaction revenue also benefited from improved contract terms across product categories.

Operating profit increased 11%. Excluding the impact of higher legal costs in 2025 of 1 percentage point, operating profit increased 12% primarily due to revenue growth and decreased incentive costs, partially offset by higher compensation costs driven by annual merit increases and additional headcount, and an increase in strategic investments. Foreign exchange rates had a favorable impact of less than 1 percentage point.

2024

Revenue increased 31%, with a favorable impact from foreign exchange rates of less than 1 percentage point. Transaction revenue increased primarily due to growth in corporate bond ratings revenue and bank loan ratings revenue driven by increased issuance volumes due to higher refinancing activity. An increase in structured finance revenue driven by increased CLO issuance also contributed to transaction revenue growth. Non-transaction revenue increased primarily due to an increase in surveillance revenue and an increase in new entity credit ratings revenue. Transaction and non-transaction revenue also benefited from improved contract terms across product categories.

Operating profit increased 45%. Excluding the impact of legal costs in 2024 of 1 percentage point, operating profit increased 46% due to revenue growth, partially offset by increased incentives as a result of financial performance and higher compensation costs driven by annual merit increases and additional headcount. Foreign exchange rates had a favorable impact of 1 percentage point.

Billed Issuance Volumes

We monitor billed issuance volumes regularly within Ratings. Billed issuance excludes items that do not impact transaction revenue, such as issuance from frequent issuer programs, unrated debt, and most international public finance to more effectively correlate issuance activity to movements in transaction revenue.

The following table provides billed issuance levels based on Ratings’ internal data feeds for the years ended December 31:


(in billions)	Year ended December 31,						% Change
	2025		2024		2023		’25 vs ’24	’24 vs ’23
Investment-grade billed issuance *	$	1,662	$	1,497	$	1,102	11%	36%
High-yield billed issuance *	$	586	$	501	$	258	17%	94%
Other billed issuance **	$	2,078	$	1,914	$	1,179	9%	62%
Total billed issuance	$	4,327	$	3,911	$	2,539	11%	54%

Note - Totals presented may not sum due to rounding.

* Includes Corporates, Financial Services and Infrastructure.

** Includes Bank Loans, Structured Finance and Government.

2025

Billed issuance was up in 2025 due to increases in high yield, investment grade and structured finance. Tightening borrowing spreads drove refinancing in high yield, while AI-related issuance drove billed issuance increases in investment grade. Structured finance billed issuance increases were driven primarily by new CLO issuance.

2024

Billed issuance was up in 2024 as continued favorable market conditions drove issuers to capitalize on tightening borrowing spreads. Refinancing continued to drive high-yield, while M&A and other non-refinancing activity also drove billed issuance increases in investment grade and bank loans. Structured finance billed issuance increases were driven primarily by new CLO issuance.

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Industry Highlights and Outlook

Revenue increased in 2025 driven by growth in both non-transaction and transaction revenue. Transaction revenue increased primarily due to higher corporate bond ratings revenue, partially offset by lower bank loan ratings revenue. An increase in structured finance revenue driven by increased CLO issuance also contributed to transaction revenue growth. Non-transaction revenue increased primarily due to an increase in surveillance revenue and an increase in revenue at our Crisil subsidiary.

A few of the key strategic initiatives for Ratings in 2026 include private market opportunities, which contributed to revenue growth in 2025, and geographic expansion.

Legal and Regulatory Environment

General

Ratings and many of the securities that it rates are subject to extensive regulation in both the U.S. and in other countries, and therefore existing and proposed laws and regulations can impact the Company’s operations and the markets in which it operates. Additional laws and regulations have been adopted but not yet implemented or have been proposed or are being considered. In addition, in certain countries, governments may provide financial or other support to locally-based rating agencies. For example, governments may from time to time establish official rating agencies or credit ratings criteria or procedures for evaluating local issuers. We have reviewed the new laws, regulations and rules which have been adopted and we have implemented, or are planning to implement, changes as required. We do not believe that such new laws, regulations or rules will have a material adverse effect on our financial condition or results of operations. Other laws, regulations and rules relating to credit rating agencies are from time to time considered by local, national, foreign and multinational bodies and are likely to continue to be considered in the future, including, for example, provisions seeking to reduce regulatory and investor reliance on credit ratings or to increase competition among credit rating agencies, provisions regarding remuneration and rotation of credit rating agencies, and liability standards applicable to credit rating agencies. Similarly, other laws, regulations and rules are being adopted or considered or are likely to be considered in the future that may impact ancillary and other services provided by Ratings in addition to its credit rating products and services, for example regulatory oversight regimes for ESG ratings providers such as the EU regulation on the transparency and integrity of ESG rating activities that was adopted by the European Parliament and Council in November 2024 (the "EU ESG Ratings Regulation"), or legislation and draft rules published by the U.K. FCA in 2025 to supervise ESG ratings providers from June 2028 (the “UK ESG Ratings Regulatory Framework”). The impact on us of the adoption of any such laws, regulations or rules remains uncertain, but could increase the costs and legal risks relating to Ratings’ activities, or adversely affect our ability to compete and/or our remuneration, or result in changes in the demand for our products and services.

Increasing use of AI across our Ratings business subjects Ratings to evolving and potentially complex legal requirements, which may result in additional compliance obligations for our Ratings business operations that leverage AI technologies.

In the normal course of business both in the U.S. and abroad, Ratings (or the legal entities comprising Ratings) are defendants in numerous legal proceedings and are often the subject of government and regulatory proceedings, investigations and inquiries. Many of these proceedings, investigations and inquiries relate to the ratings activity of Ratings and are or have been brought by purchasers of rated securities. In addition, various government and self-regulatory agencies frequently make inquiries and conduct investigations into Ratings’ compliance with applicable laws and regulations. Any of these proceedings, investigations or inquiries could ultimately result in adverse judgments, damages, fines, penalties, activity restrictions or negative impacts on our cash flow, which could adversely impact our consolidated financial condition, cash flows, business or competitive position.

U.S.

The businesses conducted by our Ratings segment are, in certain cases, regulated under the Credit Rating Agency Reform Act of 2006 (the “Reform Act”), the Dodd-Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act (the “Dodd Frank Act”), the Securities Exchange Act of 1934 (the “Exchange Act”) and/or the laws of the states or other jurisdictions in which our Ratings segment conducts business. The financial services industry is subject to the potential for increased regulation in the U.S.

S&P Global Ratings is a credit rating agency that is registered with the SEC as a Nationally Recognized Statistical Rating Organization (“NRSRO”). The SEC first began informally designating NRSROs in 1975 for use of their credit ratings in the determination of capital charges for registered brokers and dealers under the SEC’s Net Capital Rule. The Reform Act created a new SEC registration system for rating agencies that choose to register as NRSROs. Under the Reform Act, the SEC is given authority and oversight of NRSROs and can censure NRSROs, revoke their registration or limit or suspend their registration in certain cases. The rules implemented by the SEC pursuant to the Reform Act, the Dodd Frank Act and the Exchange Act address, among other things, prevention or misuse of material non-public information, conflicts of interest, documentation and assessment of internal controls, and improving transparency of ratings performance and methodologies. The public portions of the current version of S&P Global Ratings’ Form NRSRO are available on S&P Global Ratings’ website.

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European Union

In the European Union ("EU"), the credit rating industry is registered and supervised through a pan-European regulatory framework which is a compilation of three sets of legislative actions. In 2009, the European Parliament passed a regulation (“CRA1”) that established an oversight regime for the credit rating industry in the EU, which became effective in 2010. CRA1 requires the registration, formal regulation and periodic inspection of credit rating agencies operating in the EU. Ratings was granted registration in October of 2011. In January of 2011, the EU established the European Securities and Markets Authority (“ESMA”), which, among other things, has direct supervisory responsibility for the registered credit rating industry throughout the EU.

Additional rules augmenting the supervisory framework for credit rating agencies went into effect in 2013. Commonly referred to as CRA3, these rules, among other things:

•impose various additional procedural requirements with respect to ratings of sovereign issuers;

•require member states to adopt laws imposing liability on credit rating agencies for an intentional or grossly negligent failure to abide by the applicable regulations;

•impose mandatory rotation requirements on credit rating agencies hired by issuers of securities for ratings of resecuritizations, which may limit the number of years a credit rating agency can issue ratings for such securities of a particular issuer;

•impose restrictions on credit rating agencies or their shareholders if certain ownership thresholds are crossed; and

•impose additional procedural and substantive requirements on the pricing of services.

Since January 2025, Ratings has been subject in the EU to new operational resilience and cyber security standards under the Digital Operational Resilience Act, including technical and organizational standards and responsibilities which may require technology and/or organizational investment.

The EU ESG Ratings Regulation will start applying mid-2026 and could impose new regulatory requirements regarding some of Ratings' ancillary and other services.

The financial services industry is subject to the potential for increased regulation in the EU.

United Kingdom

Following its exit from the European Union, the United Kingdom (“U.K.”) established a credit rating agencies oversight regime with rules that closely mirror those in place in the EU. Ratings was granted registration with the U.K. Financial Conduct Authority (“FCA”) on January 1, 2021. It is possible that the rules applicable to credit rating agencies in the U.K. will diverge from those in the EU in the future as a result of changes to one or the other legislative regime or differing approaches by the FCA and ESMA.

The UK ESG Ratings Regulatory Framework is expected to apply in full from June 2028 and could impose new regulatory requirements regarding some of Ratings' ancillary and other services.

Other Jurisdictions

Outside of the U.S., the EU and the U.K., regulators and government officials have also been implementing formal oversight of credit rating agencies. Ratings is subject to regulations in most of the foreign jurisdictions in which it operates and continues to work closely with regulators globally to promote the global consistency of regulatory requirements. Regulators in additional countries may introduce new regulations in the future.

For a further discussion of competitive and other risks inherent in our Ratings business, see Item 1A, Risk Factors, in this Annual Report on Form 10-K. For a further discussion of the legal and regulatory environment in our Ratings business, see Note 13 – Commitments and Contingencies to the consolidated financial statements under Item 8, Consolidated Financial Statements and Supplementary Data, in this Annual Report on Form 10-K.

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Energy

On May 14, 2024, we completed the acquisition of World Hydrogen Leaders, a globally-recognized portfolio of hydrogen-related conferences and events, digital training and market intelligence. The acquisition is part of our Energy segment and complements Energy's global conference business and provides customers with full coverage of the hydrogen and derivative value chain alongside Energy Transition and Sustainability solutions, including hydrogen price assessments, emission factors and market research. The acquisition of World Hydrogen Leaders is not material to our consolidated financial statements.

Energy includes the following business lines:

•Energy & Resources Data & Insights — includes data, news, insights, and analytics for petroleum, gas, power & renewables, petrochemicals, metals & steel, agriculture, and other commodities;

•Price Assessments — includes price assessments and benchmarks, and forward curves;

•Upstream Data & Insights — includes exploration & production data and insights, software and analytics; and

•Advisory & Transactional Services — includes consulting services, conferences, events and global trading services.

Energy’s revenue is generated primarily through the following sources:

•Sales usage-based royalties — primarily from licensing our proprietary market price data and price assessments to commodity exchanges; and

•Non-subscription revenue — conference sponsorship, consulting engagements, events, and perpetual software licenses.

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The following table provides revenue and segment operating profit information for the years ended December 31:


(in millions)	Year ended December 31,									% Change
	2025			2024			2023			’25 vs ’24		’24 vs ’23
Revenue	$	2,299		$	2,142		$	1,946		7	%	10	%

Subscription revenue	$	2,016		$	1,873		$	1,707		8	%	10	%
Sales usage-based royalties	$	120		$	103		$	81		17	%	27	%
Non-subscription revenue	$	163		$	166		$	158		(2)	%	5	%
% of total revenue:
Subscription revenue	88		%	87		%	88		%
Sales usage-based royalties	5		%	5		%	4		%
Non-subscription revenue	7		%	8		%	8		%

U.S. revenue	$	885		$	835		$	773		6	%	8	%
International revenue	$	1,414		$	1,307		$	1,173		8	%	11	%
% of total revenue:
U.S. revenue	39		%	39		%	40		%
International revenue	61		%	61		%	60		%

Operating profit 1	$	943		$	845		$	704		12	%	20	%
% Operating margin	41		%	39		%	36		%

12025 includes employee severance charges of $19 million and a statutorily required labor law accrual adjustment of $1 million. 2024 includes IHS Markit merger costs of $14 million, employee severance charges of $13 million, asset write-offs of $1 million and disposition-related costs of $1 million. 2023 includes IHS Markit merger costs of $35 million, employee severance charges of $26 million and acquisition-related costs of $2 million. 2025 and 2024 include amortization of intangibles from acquisitions of $130 million. 2023 includes amortization of intangibles from acquisitions $131 million.

2025

Revenue increased 7% primarily due to continued demand for market data and market insights products driven by expanded product offerings to our existing customers under enterprise use contracts and an increase in conference revenue driven by increased attendance at CERAWeek in 2025. An increase in sales usage-based royalties from the licensing of our proprietary market data to commodity exchanges due to increased trading volumes for Platts based contracts across all commodity sectors also contributed to revenue growth. All four business lines contributed to revenue growth in 2025 with the Energy & Resources Data & Insights, Price Assessments and Advisory & Transactional Services businesses being the most significant drivers, followed by the Upstream Data & Insights business that increased less than 1%. Foreign exchange rates had an unfavorable impact of less than 1 percentage point.

Operating profit increased 12%. Excluding the impact of IHS Markit merger costs in 2024 of 5 percentage points, partially offset by higher employee severance charges in 2025 of 2 percentage points, operating profit increased 9%. The increase was primarily due to revenue growth and decreased incentives, partially offset by higher compensation costs driven by annual merit increases and additional headcount, investment in strategic initiatives and expenses associated with the acquisition of World Hydrogen Leaders. Foreign exchange rates had an unfavorable impact of less than 1 percentage point.

2024

Revenue increased 10% primarily due to continued demand for market data and market insights products driven by expanded product offerings to our existing customers under enterprise use contracts. An increase in sales usage-based royalties from the licensing of our proprietary market data to commodity exchanges due to increased trading volumes for Platts based contracts across all commodity sectors and higher consulting revenue also contributed to revenue growth. Revenue was favorably impacted by the acquisition of World Hydrogen Leaders in May of 2024. All four business lines contributed to revenue growth in 2024 with the Price Assessments, Energy & Resources Data & Insights and Advisory & Transactional Services businesses being the most significant drivers, followed by the Upstream Data & Insights business. Foreign exchange rates had an unfavorable impact of less than 1 percentage point.

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Operating profit increased 20%. Excluding the impact of higher IHS Markit merger costs in 2023 of 5 percentage points and higher employee severance charges in 2023 of 3 percentage points, operating profit increased 12%. The increase was primarily due to revenue growth partially offset by higher compensation costs driven by annual merit increases, higher incentives, investment in strategic initiatives and expenses associated with the acquisition of World Hydrogen Leaders. Foreign exchange rates had a favorable impact of less than 1 percentage point.

Industry Highlights and Outlook

In 2025, sustained demand for market data and market insights products, an increase in sales usage-based royalties from the licensing of our proprietary market data and price assessments to commodity exchanges mainly due to increased trading volumes, and higher conference revenue contributed to revenue growth.

Key strategic initiatives for Energy in 2026 include developing new products and enhancements leveraging technology investments and geographic expansion.

Legal and Regulatory Environment

Energy's price assessment business is subject to increasing regulatory scrutiny. Energy is subject to commodity benchmark regulation in the EU (the “EU Benchmark Regulation”) and the U.K. (the "U.K. Benchmark Regulation"), as well as increasing regulation in other jurisdictions. Energy has obtained authorization and is now supervised by the Dutch Authority for the Financial Markets in the Netherlands under the EU Benchmark Regulation, and it will likely need to take similar steps in other jurisdictions including the United Kingdom when the transitional period under the EU Benchmark Regulation (and its equivalent under the U.K. Benchmark Regulation) ends, as well as in jurisdictions outside of Europe implementing similar legislation. The U.S. Federal Energy Regulatory Commission does not directly supervise Energy, but it does impose standards on Energy, and it also has supervisory authority over Energy's clients and third-party data providers in the U.S. natural gas and power markets.

The EU's package of legislative measures called the Markets in Financial Instruments Directive and Regulation (collectively "MiFID II") have applied in all EU Member States since 2018. MiFID II includes provisions that, among other things: (i) impose new conditions and requirements on the licensing of benchmarks and provide for non-discriminatory access to exchanges and clearing houses; (ii) modify the categorization and treatment of certain classes of derivatives; (iii) expand the categories of trading venue that are subject to regulation; (iv) require the unbundling of investment research and direct how asset managers pay for research either out of a research payment account or from a firm’s profits; and (v) provide for the mandatory trading of certain derivatives on exchanges (complementing the mandatory derivative clearing requirements in the E.U. Market Infrastructure Regulation of 2011). MiFID II and the Market Abuse Regulation may impose additional regulatory burdens on Energy activities in the EU over time, but their impact on, and costs to, the Company have not yet been substantive.

In October of 2012, IOSCO issued its Principles for Oil Price Reporting Agencies ("PRA Principles"), which are intended to enhance the reliability of oil price assessments referenced in derivative contracts subject to regulation by IOSCO members. Energy has aligned its operations with the PRA Principles and, as recommended by IOSCO in its final report on the PRA Principles, has aligned to the PRA Principles for other commodities for which it publishes benchmarks.

Increasing use of AI across our Energy business subjects Energy to evolving and potentially complex legal requirements, which may result in additional compliance obligations for our Energy business operations that leverage AI technologies.

From time to time, government and self-regulatory agencies in jurisdictions where we operate conduct market studies on our markets, which may result in the imposition of remedies that impact our business.

Other laws, regulations and rules are being adopted, amended or considered or are likely to be considered in the future that may impact Energy, for example regulatory oversight regimes for ESG ratings providers such as the EU regulation on the transparency and integrity of ESG rating activities that was adopted by the European Parliament and Council in November 2024 (the "EU ESG Ratings Regulation"). The EU ESG Ratings Regulation will start applying mid-2026 and could impose new regulatory requirements regarding some of Energy’s ancillary and other services. Energy will also be subject to The Financial Services and Markets Act 2000 (Regulated Activities) (ESG Ratings) Order 2025 and will need to become supervised by the U.K. Financial Conduct Authority for the ESG ratings it provides from June 2028. The impact on us of the adoption of any such laws, regulations or rules remains uncertain, but could increase the costs and legal risks relating to Energy’s activities, or adversely affect our ability to compete and/or our remuneration, or result in changes in the demand for our products and services.

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For a further discussion of competitive and other risks inherent in our Energy business, see Item 1A, Risk Factors, in this Annual Report on Form 10-K. For a further discussion of the legal and regulatory environment in our Energy business, see Note 13 – Commitments and Contingencies to the consolidated financial statements under Item 8, Consolidated Financial Statements and Supplementary Data, in this Annual Report on Form 10-K.

Mobility

In February of 2023, we completed the acquisition of Market Scan Information Systems Inc. (“Market Scan”), a leading provider of automotive pricing and incentive intelligence, including Automotive Payments as a ServiceTM and its powerful payment calculation engine. The addition of Market Scan to Mobility enabled the integration of detailed transaction intelligence in areas that are complementary to existing services for dealers, OEMs, lenders, and other market participants. The acquisition of Market Scan is not material to our consolidated financial statements.

Mobility includes the following business lines:

•Dealer — includes analytics to predict future buyers, targeted marketing, and vehicle history data to allow people to shop, buy, service and sell used cars;

•Manufacturing — includes insights, forecasts and advisory services spanning the entire automotive value chain, from product planning to marketing, sales and the aftermarket; and

•Financial — includes reports and data feeds to support lenders and insurance companies.

Mobility’s revenue is generated primarily through the following sources:

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The following table provides revenue and segment operating profit information for the years ended December 31:


(in millions)	Year ended December 31,									% Change
	2025			2024			2023			’25 vs ’24		’24 vs ’23
Revenue	$	1,747		$	1,609		$	1,484		9	%	8	%

Subscription revenue	$	1,422		$	1,299		$	1,169		10	%	11	%
Non-subscription revenue	$	325		$	310		$	315		5	%	(2)	%
% of total revenue:
Subscription revenue	81		%	81		%	79		%
Non-subscription revenue	19		%	19		%	21		%

U.S. revenue	$	1,451		$	1,325		$	1,223		9	%	8	%
International revenue	$	296		$	284		$	261		4	%	9	%
% of total revenue:
U.S. revenue	83		%	82		%	82		%
International revenue	17		%	18		%	18		%

Operating profit 1	$	378		$	312		$	260		21	%	20	%
% Operating margin	22		%	19		%	18		%

1 2025 includes employee severance charges of $15 million, disposition-related costs of $7 million, Executive Leadership Team transition benefit of $4 million and a legal settlement recovery of $3 million. 2024 includes employee severance charges of $7 million, IHS Markit merger costs of $4 million, acquisition-related costs of $2 million and a liability write-off of $1 million. 2023 includes employee severance charges of $9 million, IHS Markit merger costs of $3 million and acquisition-related costs of $2 million. 2025 and 2024 include amortization of intangibles from acquisitions of $303 million. 2023 includes amortization of intangibles from acquisitions of $301 million.

2025

Revenue increased 9% primarily due to growth within the Dealer and Financial businesses driven by continued new business growth within the Dealer business, strong underwriting volumes and market share growth within the Financial business. Additionally, the Dealer and Financial businesses were favorably impacted by improved contract terms. Non-subscription revenue growth was unfavorably impacted by the tightening of the Manufacturing businesses’ discretionary budgets due to market conditions around tariffs and uncertainty around EV adoption; together with lower recall activity. Foreign exchange rates had an unfavorable impact of less than 1 percentage point.

Operating profit increased 21%. Excluding the impact of an Executive Leadership Team transition benefit in 2025 of 12 percentage points, a legal settlement recovery in 2025 of 8 percentage points, IHS Markit merger costs in 2024 of 10 percentage points and higher acquisition related costs in 2024 of 5 percentage points, partially offset by higher employee severance costs in 2025 of 22 percentage points, higher disposition-related costs in 2025 of 20 percentage points, an asset write-off in 2024 of 2 percentage points and higher amortization of intangibles from acquisitions in 2025 of 1 percentage point operating profit increased 11%. The increase was primarily driven by revenue growth, partially offset by higher compensation costs driven by annual merit increases and additional headcount, an increase in advertising and promotion costs and an increase in strategic investments. Foreign exchange rates had a favorable impact of 1 percentage point.

2024

Revenue increased 8% primarily due to growth within the Dealer and Financial businesses driven by continued new business growth within the Dealer business and strong underwriting volumes within the Financial business. These increases were partially offset by a decrease in non-subscription revenue in the Manufacturing business due to lower recall activity and marketing services. Revenue at Mobility was favorably impacted by the acquisition of Market Scan in February of 2023. Foreign exchange rates had an unfavorable impact of 1 percentage point.

Operating profit increased 20%. Excluding the impact of higher employee severance charges in 2023 of 19 percentage points, a liability write-off in 2024 of 4 percentage points and higher acquisition-related costs in 2023 of 4 percentage points, partially

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offset by higher amortization of intangibles in 2024 of 8 percentage points and higher IHS Markit merger costs in 2024 of 8 percentage points, operating profit increased 9% driven by revenue growth, partially offset by higher compensation costs driven by annual merit increases, higher incentives, an increase in strategic investments and expenses associated with the acquisition of Market Scan. Foreign exchange rates had an unfavorable impact of 1 percentage point.

Industry Highlights and Outlook

All three business lines contributed to revenue growth in 2025 with the Dealer and Financial businesses being the most significant drivers, followed by the Manufacturing business. Non-subscription revenue growth was unfavorably impacted by the tightening of the Manufacturing businesses’ discretionary budgets due to market conditions around tariffs and uncertainty around EV adoption; together with lower recall activity.

Legal and Regulatory Environment

Certain types of information that our Mobility business collects, compiles, stores, uses, transfers, publishes and/or sells is subject to laws and regulations in various jurisdictions in which it operates. There is an increasing public concern regarding, and resulting increasing regulations of, privacy, data, and consumer protection issues. Certain laws and regulations to which our Mobility business is subject pertain to personally identifiable information relating to individuals. Such laws and regulations constrain the collection, use, processing, storage, and transfer of personally identifiable information, and impose other obligations with which we must comply. To conduct our operations, in certain instances, our Mobility business also moves data across national borders and consequently can be subject to a variety of evolving and developing laws and regulations regarding privacy, data protection, and data security in an increasing number of jurisdictions. Many jurisdictions have passed laws in this area, such as the U.S. Driver's Privacy Protection Act ("DPPA"), the Gramm–Leach–Bliley Act, the European Union General Data Protection Regulation (the “GDPR”), the U.K. GDPR, a version of the GDPR as implemented into the laws of the U.K., Quebec Law 25 and proposed Federal Bill C-27 in Canada, the Cybersecurity Law of the People’s Republic of China adopted in 2017, the California Consumer Privacy Act, as modified by the California Privacy Rights and Enforcement Act and numerous other similar comprehensive data privacy and security laws in other U.S. states, as well as numerous other jurisdictions considering imposing similar laws and regulations. These laws and regulations are increasing in complexity and number, change frequently, and increasingly conflict among the various jurisdictions in which our Mobility business operates, which has resulted in greater compliance risk and cost for us. It is possible that our Mobility business could be prohibited or constrained from collecting or disseminating certain types of data or from providing certain products or solutions as a result of such laws and regulations. If our Mobility business fails to comply with these laws or regulations, we could be subject to significant litigation and civil or criminal penalties (including monetary damages, regulatory enforcement actions or fines in one or more jurisdictions), as well as reputational damage that could result in the loss of data, brand equity or business. For example, a failure to comply with the GDPR or U.K. GDPR could result in fines up to the greater of €20 million (or £17.5 million under the U.K. GDPR) or 4% of annual global revenues. Additionally, in the case of a DPPA violation, U.S. courts may award liquidated damages of $2,500 per affected individual. Additional risks are presented by the evolving landscape related to sanctions and export control laws. The landscape related to these laws is evolving rapidly and presents compliance challenges to all businesses covered by these laws.

Our Mobility business is also subject to other regulations geared at consumer protection, such as the California Combating Auto Retail Scams Act, which will become effective on October 1, 2026, and could impact our Mobility business’s products and solutions. In addition, increasing use of AI across our Mobility business subjects Mobility to evolving and potentially complex legal requirements. For example, the EU AI Act, adopted in 2024, establishes a legal framework for the development and use of AI in the EU, and may result in additional compliance obligations for our Mobility business operations that leverage AI technologies.

For a further discussion of competitive and other risks inherent in our Mobility business, see Item 1A, Risk Factors, in this Annual Report on Form 10-K. For a further discussion of the legal and regulatory environment in our Mobility business, see Note 13 – Commitments and Contingencies to the consolidated financial statements under Item 8, Consolidated Financial Statements and Supplementary Data, in this Annual Report on Form 10-K.

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Indices

On October 1, 2025, we completed the acquisition of ARC Research, a subsidiary of ARC Group, the leading independent provider of investment performance data, benchmarking capabilities and insights in the private wealth market. The acquisition is part of our Indices segment and expands our capabilities to deliver innovative, high-quality benchmarks and data solutions tailored to the evolving needs of wealth managers, private banks, and financial advisers. The acquisition of ARC Research is not material to our consolidated financial statements.

Indices derives revenue from asset-linked fees when investors direct funds into its proprietary designed or owned indexes, sales usage-based royalties of its indices, as well as data subscription arrangements. Specifically, Indices generates revenue from the following sources:

•Exchange traded derivatives — generate sales usage-based royalties based on trading volumes of derivatives contracts listed on various exchanges;

•Index-related licensing fees — fixed or variable annual and per-issue asset-linked fees for over-the-counter derivatives and retail-structured products; and

•Data and customized index subscription fees — fees from supporting index fund management, portfolio analytics and research.

The following table provides revenue and segment operating profit information for the years ended December 31:


(in millions)	Year ended December 31,									% Change
	2025			2024			2023			’25 vs ’24	’24 vs ’23
Revenue	$	1,850		$	1,628		$	1,403		14%	16%

Asset-linked fees	$	1,206		$	1,046		$	859		15%	22%
Subscription revenue	$	320		$	292		$	277		10%	6%
Sales usage-based royalties	$	324		$	290		$	267		12%	9%
% of total revenue:
Asset-linked fees	65		%	64		%	61		%
Subscription revenue	17		%	18		%	20		%
Sales usage-based royalties	18		%	18		%	19		%

U.S. revenue	$	1,482		$	1,322		$	1,147		12%	15%
International revenue	$	368		$	306		$	256		20%	20%
% of total revenue:
U.S. revenue	80		%	81		%	82		%
International revenue	20		%	19		%	18		%

Operating profit 1	$	1,271		$	1,103		$	925		15%	19%
Less: net income attributable to noncontrolling interests	$	322		$	284		$	241		13%	18%
Net operating profit	$	949		$	819		$	684		16%	20%
% Operating margin	69		%	68		%	66		%
% Net operating margin	51		%	50		%	49		%

12025 includes employee severance charges of $4 million and acquisition-related costs of $1 million. 2024 includes IHS Markit merger costs of $4 million, a loss on disposition of $1 million and employee severance charges of $1 million. 2023 includes employee severance charges of $5 million, a gain on disposition of $4 million and IHS Markit merger costs of $4 million. 2025 includes amortization of intangibles from acquisitions of $37 million. 2024 and 2023 include amortization of intangibles from acquisitions of $36 million.

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2025

Revenue at Indices increased 14% primarily due to an increase in asset linked fees revenue driven by higher levels of assets under management (“AUM”) for ETFs and mutual funds, higher exchange-traded derivative revenue and higher data subscription revenue. Ending AUM for ETFs increased 25% to $5.480 trillion compared to 2024 and average levels of AUM for ETFs increased 24% to $4.772 trillion compared to 2024. Foreign exchange rates had a favorable impact of 1 percentage point.

Operating profit increased 15%. Excluding the impact of IHS Markit merger costs in 2024 of 6 percentage points and a loss on disposition in 2024 of 2 percentage points, partially offset by higher employee severance charges in 2025 of 5 percentage points, acquisition related costs in 2025 of 2 percentage points and higher amortization of intangibles from acquisitions in 2025 of 1 percentage point, operating profit increased 15% due to revenue growth and decreased incentive costs, partially offset by higher compensation costs driven by annual merit increases, and an increase in strategic investments. Foreign exchange rates had an unfavorable impact of 1 percentage point.

2024

Revenue at Indices increased 16% primarily due to an increase in asset linked fees revenue driven by higher levels of AUM for ETFs and mutual funds, higher over-the-counter derivatives revenue, higher exchange-traded derivative revenue driven by continued strength in trading volume and higher data subscription revenue. Average levels of AUM for ETFs increased 33% to $3.836 trillion and ending AUM for ETFs increased 33% to $4.389 trillion compared to 2023. Foreign exchange rates had an unfavorable impact of less than 1 percentage point.

Operating profit increased 19%. Excluding the impact of a loss on disposition in 2024 compared to a gain on disposition in 2023 of 4 percentage points, partially offset by higher employee severance charges in 2023 of 3 percentage points, operating profit increased 18% due to revenue growth partially offset by higher compensation costs driven by annual merit increases, higher incentives and an increase in strategic investments. Foreign exchange rates had an unfavorable impact of 1 percentage point.

Industry Highlights and Outlook

Revenue increased in 2025 primarily due to an increase in asset linked fees revenue driven by higher levels of AUM for ETFs and mutual funds, higher exchange-traded derivative revenue and higher data subscription revenue. Indices continues to be a leading index provider for the ETF market space.

Key strategic initiatives for Indices in 2026, including Private Markets and Wealth, continue to be areas of focus for Indices and contributed to revenue growth in 2025.

Legal and Regulatory Environment

The financial benchmarks industry is subject to specific benchmark regulation in the European Union (the "EU Benchmark Regulation"), the United Kingdom (the "U.K. Benchmark Regulation"), and Australia (the "Australia Benchmark Regulation"). Various other jurisdictions, including the United States, India, Canada and South Africa, are also considering the regulation of financial benchmarks through new or existing regimes.

Although they vary in scope, the requirements of the EU Benchmark Regulation, the U.K. Benchmark Regulation and the Australian Benchmark Regulation are similar. Indices currently maintains a benchmark administrator in both the Netherlands (supervised by the European Securities and Markets Authority (ESMA)) for its benchmark activities in the European Union and in the United Kingdom (authorized by the Financial Conduct Authority) for its benchmark activities in the United Kingdom. The Australian Benchmark Regulation requires a license from the Australian Securities and Investment Commission (“ASIC”), which Indices has obtained. These benchmark regulations have and may continue to cause increased operating obligations, exposure, compliance risk, and costs of doing business for Indices.

In July of 2013, IOSCO issued its Principles for Financial Benchmarks (the “Financial Benchmark Principles”), intended to promote the reliability of financial benchmarks. The Financial Benchmark Principles address governance, benchmark quality and accountability mechanisms, including with regard to the indices published by Indices. Indices has taken steps to align its governance regime, control framework and operations with the Financial Benchmark Principles and engages an independent auditor to perform an annual reasonable assurance review of its adherence to the Financial Benchmark Principles.

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Increasing use of AI across our Indices business subjects Indices to evolving and potentially complex legal requirements, which may result in additional compliance obligations for our Indices business operations that leverage AI technologies.

For a further discussion of competitive and other risks inherent in our Indices business, see Item 1A, Risk Factors, in this Annual Report on Form 10-K. For a further discussion of the legal and regulatory environment in our Indices business, see Note 13 – Commitments and Contingencies to the consolidated financial statements under Item 8, Consolidated Financial Statements and Supplementary Data, in this Annual Report on Form 10-K.

Engineering Solutions

As of May 2, 2023, we completed the sale of Engineering Solutions, a provider of engineering standards and related technical knowledge, and the results are included through that date. See Note 2 - Acquisitions and Divestitures to the consolidated financial statements under Item 8, Consolidated Financial Statements and Supplementary Data, in this Annual Report on Form 10-K for information on the sale of Engineering Solutions.

The following table provides revenue and segment operating profit information for the years ended December 31:


(in millions)	Year ended December 31,									% Change
	2025			2024			2023			’24 vs ’23	’23 vs ’22
Revenue	$	—		$	—		$	133		N/M	N/M

Subscription revenue	$	—		$	—		$	125		N/M	N/M
Non-subscription revenue	$	—		$	—		$	8		N/M	N/M
% of total revenue:
Subscription revenue	—		%	—		%	94		%
Non-subscription revenue	—		%	—		%	6		%

U.S. revenue							$	72		N/M	N/M
International revenue							$	61		N/M	N/M
% of total revenue:
U.S. revenue	—		%	—		%	54		%
International revenue	—		%	—		%	46		%

Operating profit 1	$	—		$	—		$	19		N/M	N/M
% Operating margin	—		%	—		%	14		%

N/M – Represents a change equal to or in excess of 100% or not meaningful

12023 includes amortization of intangibles from acquisitions of $1 million.

LIQUIDITY AND CAPITAL RESOURCES

We continue to maintain a strong financial position. Our primary source of funds for operations is cash from our businesses and our core businesses have been strong cash generators. In 2026, cash on hand, cash flows from operations and availability under our existing credit facility are expected to be sufficient to meet any additional operating and recurring cash needs in the short term and into the foreseeable future. We use our cash for a variety of needs, including but not limited to: ongoing investments in our businesses, strategic acquisitions, share repurchases, dividends, repayment of debt, capital expenditures and investment in our infrastructure.

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Cash Flow Overview

Cash, cash equivalents, and restricted cash were $1.7 billion as of December 31, 2025 and 2024.


(in millions)	Year ended December 31,
	2025		2024		2023
Net cash provided by (used for):
Operating activities	$	5,651	$	5,689	$	3,710
Investing activities	(704)		(255)		562
Financing activities	(4,930)		(4,998)		(4,280)

In 2025, free cash flow decreased to $5.1 billion compared to $5.3 billion in 2024 primarily due to an increase in cash used for capital expenditures and distributions to noncontrolling interest holders and a decrease in cash provided by operating activities as discussed below. Free cash flow is a non-GAAP financial measure and reflects our cash flow provided by operating activities less capital expenditures and distributions to noncontrolling interest holders. Capital expenditures include purchases of property and equipment and additions to technology projects. See “Reconciliation of Non-GAAP Financial Information” below for a reconciliation of cash flow provided by operating activities, the most directly comparable U.S. GAAP financial measure, to free cash flow.

Operating activities

Cash provided by operating activities decreased $38 million in 2025 compared to 2024. This is primarily attributable to lower cash collections in 2025, higher compensation payments in 2025 and proceeds received from the termination of interest rate swaps in 2024, partially offset by higher operating results in 2025.

Cash provided by operating activities increased to $5.7 billion in 2024 as compared to $3.7 billion in 2023. The increase is mainly due to higher operating results in 2024, proceeds received from the termination of interest rate swaps in 2024 and higher tax payments in 2023.

Investing activities

Our cash outflows from investing activities are primarily for acquisitions and capital expenditures, while cash inflows are primarily proceeds from dispositions.

Cash used for investing activities increased to $0.7 billion in 2025 as compared to $0.3 billion in 2024, primarily due to higher cash used in 2025 for the acquisition of With Intelligence, partially offset by higher cash proceeds received in 2025 related to the disposition of OSTTRA.

Cash used for investing activities was $0.3 billion in 2024 compared to cash provided by investing activities of $0.6 billion in 2023, primarily due to higher cash proceeds received in 2023 related to the disposition of Engineering Solutions.

Refer to Note 2 – Acquisitions and Divestitures to the Consolidated Financial Statements and Supplementary Data, in the Annual Report on Form 10-K for further information.

Financing activities

Our cash outflows from financing activities consist primarily of share repurchases, dividends to shareholders and repayments of short-term and long-term debt, while cash inflows are primarily attributable to the borrowing of short-term and long-term debt.

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Cash used for financing activities decreased to $4.9 billion in 2025 from $5.0 billion in 2024. The decrease is primarily attributable to proceeds received from the $600 million and $400 million issuance of senior notes and commercial paper in 2025, partially offset by higher cash used for share repurchases in 2025.

Cash used for financing activities increased to $5.0 billion in 2024 from $4.3 billion in 2023. The increase is primarily attributable to proceeds received from the $750 million issuance of senior note in 2023.

During the year ended December 31, 2025, we received a total of 9.3 million shares, including 0.3 million shares received in February of 2025 related to our October 28, 2024 ASR agreement, resulting in $5.0 billion of cash used to purchase shares. During the year ended December 31, 2024 we received a total of 6.7 million shares, including 0.2 million shares received in February of 2024 related to our November 13, 2023 ASR agreement, resulting in $3.3 billion of cash used to purchase shares. During the year ended December 31, 2023, we received a total of 8.6 million shares, including 0.4 million shares received in February of 2023 related to our December 2, 2022 ASR agreement, resulting in $3.3 billion of cash used to purchase shares. See Note 9 — Equity to the Consolidated Financial Statements and Supplementary Data, in the Annual Report on Form 10-K for information related to our ASR agreements.

Additional Financing

We have the ability to borrow a total of $2.0 billion through our commercial paper program, which is supported by our $2.0 billion five-year credit agreement (our “credit facility”) that will terminate on December 17, 2029. As of December 31, 2025, we had $715 million of outstanding commercial paper. As of December 31, 2024, we had no outstanding commercial paper.

Commitment fees for the unutilized commitments under the credit facility and applicable margins for borrowings thereunder are linked to the Company achieving three environmental sustainability performance indicators related to emissions, tested annually. We currently pay a commitment fee of 8 basis points. There will be no sustainability pricing adjustment to our commitment fees or our margins under the credit facility for the approximately year-long period beginning April 7, 2025 as a result of our emissions performance for the year ended December 31, 2024. The credit facility contains customary affirmative and negative covenants and customary events of default. The occurrence of an event of default could result in an acceleration of the obligations under the credit facility.

The only financial covenant in our credit facility is a requirement that our indebtedness to cash flow ratio, as defined in our credit facility, is not greater than 4 to 1, and this ratio has never been exceeded.

Dividends

On January 14, 2026, the Board of Directors approved a quarterly common stock dividend of $0.97 per share.

Supplemental Guarantor Financial Information

The senior notes described below were issued by S&P Global Inc. and are fully and unconditionally guaranteed by Standard & Poor's Financial Services LLC, a 100% owned subsidiary of the Company.

•On December 1, 2025, S&P Global Inc. issued $600 million of 4.25% Senior notes due 2031 and $400 million of 4.80% Senior notes due 2035.

•On August 22, 2024, S&P Global Inc. issued $746 million of 5.25% Senior Notes due 2033 that have been registered with the SEC and guaranteed by Standard & Poor’s Financial Services LLC in exchange for unregistered senior notes of like principal amounts and terms that were originally issued on September 12, 2023.

•On March 1, 2023, S&P Global Inc. issued new senior notes that have been registered with the SEC and guaranteed by Standard & Poor’s Financial Services LLC in exchange for the following series of unregistered senior notes of like principal amount and terms:

•$700 million of 4.75% Senior Notes due 2028 that were originally issued on March 2, 2022;

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•$921 million of 4.25% Senior Notes due 2029 that were originally issued on March 2, 2022;

•$1,237 million of 2.45% Senior Notes due 2027 that were originally issued on March 18, 2022;

•$1,227 million of 2.70% Sustainability-Linked Senior Notes due 2029 that were originally issued on March 18, 2022;

•$1,492 million of 2.90% Senior Notes due 2032 that were originally issued on March 18, 2022;

•$974 million of 3.70% Senior Notes due 2052 that were originally issued on March 18, 2022; and

•$500 million of 3.90% Senior Notes due 2062 that were originally issued on March 18, 2022.

•On August 13, 2020, we issued $600 million of 1.25% senior notes due in 2030 and $700 million of 2.3% senior notes due in 2060.

•On November 26, 2019, we issued $500 million of 2.5% senior notes due in 2029 and $600 million of 3.25% senior notes due in 2049.

•On May 17, 2018, we issued $500 million of 4.5% senior notes due in 2048.

•On September 22, 2016, we issued $500 million of 2.95% senior notes due in 2027.

•On November 2, 2007 we issued $400 million of 6.55% Senior Notes due 2037.

The notes above are unsecured and unsubordinated and rank equally and ratably with all of our existing and future unsecured and unsubordinated debt. The guarantees are the subsidiary guarantor’s unsecured and unsubordinated debt and rank equally and ratably with all of the subsidiary guarantor’s existing and future unsecured and unsubordinated debt.

The guarantees of the subsidiary guarantor may be released and discharged upon (i) a sale or other disposition (including by way of consolidation or merger) of the subsidiary guarantor or the sale or disposition of all or substantially all the assets of the subsidiary guarantor (in each case other than to the Company or a person who, prior to such sale or other disposition, is an affiliate of the Company); (ii) upon defeasance or discharge of any applicable series of the notes, as described above; or (iii) at such time as the subsidiary guarantor ceases to guarantee indebtedness for borrowed money, other than a discharge through payment thereon, under any Credit Facility of the Company, other than any such Credit Facility of the Company the guarantee of which by the subsidiary guarantor will be released concurrently with the release of the subsidiary guarantor’s guarantees of the notes. Other subsidiaries of the Company do not guarantee the registered debt securities of either S&P Global Inc. or Standard & Poor's Financial Services LLC (the “Obligor Group”) which are referred to as the “Non-Obligor Group”.

The following tables set forth the summarized financial information of the Obligor Group on a combined basis. This summarized financial information excludes the Non-Obligor Group. Intercompany balances and transactions between members of the Obligor Group have been eliminated. This information is not intended to present the financial position or results of operations of the Obligor Group in accordance with U.S. GAAP.

Summarized results of operations for the year ended December 31 is as follows:



(in millions)	2025
Revenue	$	4,461
Operating Profit	3,133
Net Income	1,797
Net income attributable to S&P Global Inc.	1,797

Summarized balance sheet information as of December 31 is as follows:



(in millions)	2025		2024
Current assets (excluding intercompany from Non-Obligor Group)	$	757	$	1,400
Noncurrent assets	898		782

Current liabilities (excluding intercompany to Non-Obligor Group)	1,192		339
Noncurrent liabilities	12,435		11,541
Intercompany payables to Non-Obligor Group	18,077		16,100

Contractual Obligations

We typically have various contractual obligations, which are recorded as liabilities in our consolidated balance sheets, while other items, such as certain purchase commitments and other executory contracts, are not recognized, but are disclosed herein. For example, we are contractually committed to contracts for information-technology outsourcing, certain enterprise-wide information-technology software licensing and maintenance.

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We believe that the amount of cash and cash equivalents on hand, cash flows expected from operations and availability under our credit facility will be adequate for us to execute our business strategy and meet anticipated requirements for lease obligations, capital expenditures, working capital and debt service for 2026.

The following table summarizes our significant contractual obligations and commercial commitments as of December 31, 2025, over the next several years. Additional details regarding these obligations are provided in the notes to our consolidated financial statements, as referenced in the footnotes to the table:


(in millions)	Less than 1 Year		1-3 Years		3-5 Years		More than 5 Years		Total
Debt: 1
Principal payments	$	718	$	2,529	$	3,326	$	6,515	$	13,088
Interest payments	424		751		549		2,843		4,567
Operating leases 2	145		239		148		175		707
Purchase obligations and other 3	334		712		122		13		1,181
Total contractual cash obligations	$	1,621	$	4,231	$	4,145	$	9,546	$	19,543

1Our debt obligations are described in Note 5 – Debt to our consolidated financial statement.

2See Note 13 – Commitments and Contingencies to our consolidated financial statements for further discussion on our operating lease obligations.

3Other consists primarily of commitments for unconditional purchase obligations in contracts for information-technology outsourcing and certain enterprise-wide information-technology software licensing and maintenance.

As of December 31, 2025, we had $322 million of liabilities for unrecognized tax benefits. We have excluded the liabilities for unrecognized tax benefits from our contractual obligations table because, until formal resolutions are reached, reasonable estimates of the timing of cash settlements with the respective taxing authorities are not practicable.

As of December 31, 2025, we have recorded $4.9 billion for our redeemable noncontrolling interest in our S&P Dow Jones Indices LLC partnership discussed in Note 9 – Equity to our consolidated financial statements. Specifically, this amount relates to the put option under the terms of the operating agreement of S&P Dow Jones Indices LLC, whereby, after December 31, 2017, CME Group and CME Group Index Services LLC (“CGIS”) has the right at any time to sell, and we are obligated to buy, at least 20% of their share in S&P Dow Jones Indices LLC. We have excluded this amount from our contractual obligations table because we are uncertain as to the timing and the ultimate amount of the potential payment we may be required to make.

We make contributions to our pension and postretirement plans in order to satisfy minimum funding requirements as well as additional contributions that we consider appropriate to improve the funded status of our plans. During 2025, we contributed $10 million to our retirement plans. Expected employer contributions in 2026 are $11 million and $2 million for our retirement and postretirement plans, respectively. In 2026, we may elect to make additional non-required contributions depending on investment performance and the pension plan status. See Note 7 – Employee Benefits to our consolidated financial statements for further discussion.

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RECONCILIATION OF NON-GAAP FINANCIAL INFORMATION

Free cash flow is a non-GAAP financial measure and reflects our cash flow provided by operating activities less capital expenditures and distributions to noncontrolling interest holders. Capital expenditures include purchases of property and equipment and additions to technology projects. Our cash flow provided by operating activities is the most directly comparable U.S. GAAP financial measure to free cash flow.

We believe the presentation of free cash flow allows our investors to evaluate the cash generated from our underlying operations in a manner similar to the method used by management. We use free cash flow to conduct and evaluate our business because we believe it typically presents a more conservative measure of cash flows since capital expenditures and distributions to noncontrolling interest holders are considered a necessary component of ongoing operations. Free cash flow is useful for management and investors because it allows management and investors to evaluate the cash available to us to prepay debt, make strategic acquisitions and investments and repurchase stock.

The presentation of free cash flow is not intended to be considered in isolation or as a substitute for the financial information prepared and presented in accordance with U.S. GAAP. Free cash flow, as we calculate it, may not be comparable to similarly titled measures employed by other companies. The following table presents a reconciliation of our cash flow provided by operating activities to free cash flow:


(in millions)	Year ended December 31,						% Change
	2025		2024		2023		’25 vs ’24	’24 vs ’23
Cash provided by operating activities	$	5,651	$	5,689	$	3,710	(1)%	53%
Capital expenditures	(195)		(124)		(143)
Distributions to noncontrolling interest holders	(321)		(287)		(280)
Free cash flow	$	5,135	$	5,278	$	3,287	(3)%	61%


(in millions)	2025	2024	2023	’25 vs ’24	’24 vs ’23
Cash (used for) provided by investing activities	(704)	(255)	562	N/M	N/M
Cash used for financing activities	(4,930)	(4,998)	(4,280)	(1)%	17%

N/M – Represents a change equal to or in excess of 100% or not meaningful

CRITICAL ACCOUNTING ESTIMATES

Our discussion and analysis of our financial condition and results of operations is based upon our consolidated financial statements, which have been prepared in accordance with U.S. GAAP. The preparation of these financial statements requires us to make estimates and judgments that affect the reported amounts of assets, liabilities, revenues and expenses and related disclosure of contingent assets and liabilities.

On an ongoing basis, we evaluate our estimates and assumptions, including those related to revenue recognition, business combinations, allowance for doubtful accounts, valuation of long-lived assets, goodwill and other intangible assets, pension plans, incentive compensation and stock-based compensation, income taxes, contingencies and redeemable noncontrolling interests. We base our estimates on historical experience, current developments and on various other assumptions that we believe to be reasonable under these circumstances, the results of which form the basis for making judgments about carrying values of assets and liabilities that cannot readily be determined from other sources. There can be no assurance that actual results will not differ from those estimates.

Management considers an accounting estimate to be critical if it required assumptions to be made that were uncertain at the time the estimate was made and changes in the estimate or different estimates could have a material effect on our results of operations. Management has discussed the development and selection of our critical accounting estimates with the Audit Committee of our Board of Directors. The Audit Committee has reviewed our disclosure relating to them in this MD&A.

We believe the following critical accounting policies require us to make significant judgments and estimates in the preparation of our consolidated financial statements:

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Revenue recognition

Under ASC 606, revenue is recognized when a customer obtains control of promised goods or services in an amount that reflects the consideration the entity expects to receive in exchange for those goods or services. See Note 1 - Accounting Policies to our consolidated financial statements for further information.

Business combinations

We apply the purchase method of accounting to our business combinations. All of the assets acquired, liabilities assumed, and contingent consideration are allocated based on their estimated fair values. Fair value determinations involve significant estimates and assumptions about several highly subjective variables, including future cash flows, discount rates, and expected business performance. There are also different valuation models and inputs for each component, the selection of which requires considerable judgment. Our estimates and assumptions may be based, in part, on the availability of listed market prices or other transparent market data. These determinations will affect the amount of amortization expense recognized in future periods. We base our fair value estimates on assumptions we believe are reasonable, but recognize that the assumptions are inherently uncertain. Depending on the size of the purchase price of a particular acquisition, the mix of intangible assets acquired, and expected business performance, the purchase price allocation could be materially impacted by applying a different set of assumptions and estimates.

Allowance for doubtful accounts

The allowance for doubtful accounts reserve methodology is based on historical analysis, a review of outstanding balances and current conditions, and by incorporating data points that provide indicators of future economic conditions including forecasted industry default rates and industry index benchmarks. In determining these reserves, we consider, amongst other factors, the financial condition and risk profile of our customers, areas of specific or concentrated risk as well as applicable industry trends or market indicators. The impact on operating profit for a one percentage point change in the allowance for doubtful accounts is approximately $38 million.

We incorporate the forecasted impact of future economic conditions into our allowance for doubtful accounts measurement process. In times of economic turmoil, our estimates and judgments with respect to the collectability of our receivables are subject to greater uncertainty than in more stable periods. Based on our current outlook these assumptions are not expected to significantly change in 2026.

Accounting for the impairment of long-lived assets (including other intangible assets)

We evaluate long-lived assets for impairment whenever events or changes in circumstances indicate that the carrying amount of an asset may not be recoverable. Upon such an occurrence, recoverability of assets to be held and used is measured by comparing the carrying amount of an asset to current forecasts of undiscounted future net cash flows expected to be generated by the asset. If the carrying amount of the asset exceeds its estimated future cash flows, an impairment charge is recognized equal to the amount by which the carrying amount of the asset exceeds the fair value of the asset. For long-lived assets held for sale, assets are written down to fair value, less cost to sell. Fair value is determined based on market evidence, discounted cash flows, appraised values or management’s estimates, depending upon the nature of the assets.

Goodwill and indefinite-lived intangible assets

Goodwill represents the excess of purchase price and related costs over the value assigned to the net tangible and identifiable intangible assets of businesses acquired. As of December 31, 2025 and 2024, the carrying value of goodwill and other indefinite-lived intangible assets was $37.3 billion and $35.8 billion, respectively. Goodwill and other intangible assets with indefinite lives are not amortized, but instead are tested for impairment annually during the fourth quarter each year or more frequently if events or changes in circumstances indicate that the asset might be impaired.

Goodwill

As part of our annual impairment test of our five reporting units, we initially perform a qualitative analysis evaluating whether any events and circumstances occurred that provide evidence that it is more likely than not that the fair value of any of our reporting units is less than its carrying amount. Reporting units are generally an operating segment or one level below an operating segment. Our qualitative assessment included, but was not limited to, consideration of macroeconomic conditions, industry and market conditions, cost factors, cash flows, changes in key Company personnel and our share price. If, based on our evaluation of the events and circumstances that occurred during the year we do not believe that it is more likely than not that the fair value of any of our reporting units is less than its carrying amount, no quantitative impairment test is performed. Conversely, if the results of our qualitative assessment determine that it is more likely than not that the fair value of any of our reporting units is less than its respective carrying amount, we perform a quantitative impairment test. If the fair value of the reporting unit is less than the carrying value, the difference is recognized as an impairment charge. For 2025, based on our qualitative assessments, we determined that it is more likely than not that our reporting units’ fair values were greater than their respective carrying amounts.

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Indefinite-Lived Intangible Assets

We evaluate the recoverability of indefinite-lived intangible assets by first performing a qualitative analysis evaluating whether any events and circumstances occurred that provide evidence that it is more likely than not that the indefinite-lived asset is impaired. If, based on our evaluation of the events and circumstances that occurred during the year we do not believe that it is more likely than not that the indefinite-lived asset is impaired, no quantitative impairment test is performed. Conversely, if the results of our qualitative assessment determine that it is more likely than not that the indefinite-lived asset is impaired, a quantitative impairment test is performed. If necessary, an impairment analysis is performed using the income approach to estimate the fair value of the indefinite-lived intangible asset. If the intangible asset carrying value exceeds its fair value, an impairment charge is recognized in an amount equal to that excess. Significant judgments inherent in these analyses include estimating the amount and timing of future cash flows and the selection of appropriate discount rates, royalty rates and long-term growth rate assumptions. Changes in these estimates and assumptions could materially affect the determination of fair value for this indefinite-lived intangible asset and could result in an impairment charge, which could be material to our financial position and results of operations.

We performed our impairment assessment of goodwill and indefinite-lived intangible assets and concluded that no impairment existed for the years ended December 31, 2025, 2024 and 2023.

Retirement plans and postretirement healthcare and other benefits

Our employee pension and other postretirement benefit costs and obligations are dependent on assumptions concerning the outcome of future events and circumstances, including compensation increases, long-term return on pension plan assets, discount rates and other factors. In determining such assumptions, we consult with outside actuaries and other advisors where deemed appropriate. In accordance with relevant accounting standards, if actual results differ from our assumptions, such differences are deferred and amortized over the estimated remaining lifetime of the plan participants. While we believe that the assumptions used in these calculations are reasonable, differences in actual experience or changes in assumptions could affect the expense and liabilities related to our pension and other postretirement benefits.

The following is a discussion of some significant assumptions that we make in determining costs and obligations for pension and other postretirement benefits:

•Discount rate assumptions are based on current yields on high-grade corporate long-term bonds.

•The expected return on assets assumption is calculated based on the plan’s asset allocation strategy and projected market returns over the long-term.

Our discount rate and return on asset assumptions used to determine the net periodic pension and postretirement benefit cost on our U.S. retirement plans are as follows:


	Retirement Plans						Postretirement Plans
January 1	2026		2025		2024		2026		2025		2024
Discount rate	5.45	%	5.74	%	5.27	%	5.16	%	5.57	%	5.18	%
Return on assets	6.30	%	6.25	%	6.00	%

As of December 31, 2025, the Company had $1.1 billion in pension benefit obligation for our U.S. retirement plans. A 0.25 percentage point increase or decrease in the discount rate would result in an estimated decrease or increase to the accumulated benefit obligation of approximately $25 million. An increase or decrease of 1 percentage point in the expected rate of return on plan assets would result in a decrease or increase of approximately $12 million to 2026 pension expense.

Stock-based compensation

Stock-based compensation expense is measured at the grant date based on the fair value of the award and is recognized over the requisite service period, which typically is the vesting period. Stock-based compensation is classified as both operating-related expense and selling and general expense in our consolidated statements of income.

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Income taxes

Deferred tax assets and liabilities are recognized for the future tax consequences attributable to differences between financial statement carrying amounts of existing assets and liabilities and their respective tax bases. Deferred tax assets and liabilities are measured using enacted tax rates expected to be applied to taxable income in the years in which those temporary differences are expected to be recovered or settled. We recognize liabilities for uncertain tax positions taken or expected to be taken in income tax returns. Accrued interest and penalties related to unrecognized tax benefits are recognized in interest expense and operating expense, respectively.

Judgment is required in determining our provision for income taxes, deferred tax assets and liabilities and unrecognized tax benefits. In determining the need for a valuation allowance, the historical and projected financial performance of the operation that is recording a net deferred tax asset is considered along with any other pertinent information.

We file income tax returns in the U.S. federal jurisdiction and various state and foreign jurisdictions, and we are routinely under audit by many different tax authorities. We believe that our accrual for tax liabilities is adequate for all open audit years based on an assessment of many factors including past experience and interpretations of tax law. This assessment relies on estimates and assumptions and may involve a series of complex judgments about future events. It is possible that tax examinations will be settled prior to December 31, 2026. If any of these tax audit settlements do occur within that period, we would make any necessary adjustments to the accrual for unrecognized tax benefits.

A portion of the undistributed earnings of our foreign subsidiaries is indefinitely reinvested in our foreign operations. Accordingly, we have not recorded deferred income taxes related to those earnings. Quantification of the deferred tax liability, if any, associated with indefinitely reinvested earnings is not practicable.

Contingencies

We are subject to a number of lawsuits and claims that arise in the ordinary course of business. We recognize a liability for such contingencies when both (a) information available prior to issuance of the financial statements indicates that it is probable that a liability had been incurred at the date of the financial statements and (b) the amount of loss can reasonably be estimated. We continually assess the likelihood of any adverse judgments or outcomes to our contingencies, as well as potential amounts or ranges of probable losses, and recognize a liability, if any, for these contingencies based on an analysis of each matter with the assistance of outside legal counsel and, if applicable, other experts. Because many of these matters are resolved over long periods of time, our estimate of liabilities may change due to new developments, changes in assumptions or changes in our strategy related to the matter. When we accrue for loss contingencies and the reasonable estimate of the loss is within a range, we record its best estimate within the range. We disclose an estimated possible loss or a range of loss when it is at least reasonably possible that a loss may have been incurred.

Redeemable Noncontrolling Interest

The fair value component of the redeemable noncontrolling interest in the Indices business is based on a combination of an income and market valuation approach. Our income and market valuation approaches may incorporate Level 3 fair value measures for instances when observable inputs are not available. The more significant judgmental assumptions used to estimate the value of the S&P Dow Jones Indices LLC joint venture include an estimated discount rate, a range of assumptions that form the basis of the expected future net cash flows (e.g., the revenue growth rates and operating margins), and a company specific beta. The significant judgmental assumptions used that incorporate market data, including the relative weighting of market observable information and the comparability of that information in our valuation models, are forward-looking and could be affected by future economic and market conditions.

As of December 31, 2025, the Company had $4.9 billion in redeemable noncontrolling interest in the Indices business on the Consolidated Balance Sheet. The ultimate amount paid for the redeemable noncontrolling interest in Indices business could be significantly different because the redemption amount depends on the future results of operations of the business.

As of December 31, 2025, the weighted average cost of capital used in the Company's income analysis to estimate the fair value of the redeemable noncontrolling interest was 10.8%. A 0.25 percentage point increase or decrease in the weighted average cost of capital would decrease or increase the redemption value by approximately $135 million or $108 million, respectively. As of December 31, 2025, the terminal growth rate used in the Company's income analysis to estimate the fair value of the redeemable noncontrolling interest was 2.2%. A 0.25 percentage point increase or decrease in the terminal growth rate would increase or decrease the redemption value by approximately $54 million or $27 million, respectively.

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RECENTLY ISSUED OR ADOPTED ACCOUNTING STANDARDS

See Note 1 – Accounting Policies to our consolidated financial statements for a detailed description of recently issued or adopted accounting standards. We do not expect these recently issued or adopted accounting standards to have a material impact on our results of operations, financial condition, or liquidity in future periods.

Item 7A. Quantitative and Qualitative Disclosures about Market Risk

Our exposure to market risk includes changes in foreign exchange rates and interest rates. We have operations in foreign countries where the functional currency is primarily the local currency. For international operations that are determined to be extensions of the parent company, the U.S. dollar is the functional currency. We typically have naturally hedged positions in most countries from a local currency perspective with offsetting assets and liabilities. As of December 31, 2025 and December 31, 2024, we have entered into foreign exchange forward contracts in order to mitigate the change in fair value of specific assets and liabilities in the consolidated balance sheet. These forward contracts are not designated as hedges and do not qualify for hedge accounting. As of December 31, 2025 and December 31, 2024, we have entered into foreign exchange forward contracts to hedge the effect of adverse fluctuations in foreign exchange rates. As of December 31, 2025 and December 31, 2024, we held cross-currency swap contracts to hedge a portion of our net investment in foreign subsidiaries against volatility in foreign exchange rates. We have not entered into any derivative financial instruments for speculative purposes. See Note 6 – Derivative Instruments to the Consolidated Financial Statements and Supplementary Data, in the Annual Report on Form 10-K for further discussion.

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Item 8. Consolidated Financial Statements and Supplementary Data

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			Page
Reports of Independent Registered Public Accounting Firm (PCAOB ID: 42)			75
Consolidated Statements of Income			78
Consolidated Statements of Comprehensive Income			79
Consolidated Balance Sheets			80
Consolidated Statements of Cash Flows			81
Consolidated Statements of Equity			82
Notes to the Consolidated Financial Statements			83
1 Accounting Policies			83
2 Acquisitions and Divestitures			91
3 Goodwill and Other Intangible Assets			95
4 Taxes on Income			96
5 Debt			101
6 Derivative Instruments			102
7 Employee Benefits			105
8 Stock-Based Compensation			110
9 Equity			112
10 Earnings per Share			115
11 Restructuring			116
12 Segment and Geographic Information			116
13 Commitments and Contingencies			121

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Report of Independent Registered Public Accounting Firm

To the Shareholders and the Board of Directors of S&P Global Inc.

Opinion on the Financial Statements

We have audited the accompanying consolidated balance sheets of S&P Global Inc. (the Company) as of December 31, 2025 and 2024, the related consolidated statements of income, comprehensive income, equity and cash flows for each of the three years in the period ended December 31, 2025, and the related notes and financial statement schedule listed in the Index at Item 15(a)(2) (collectively referred to as the “consolidated financial statements”). In our opinion, the consolidated financial statements present fairly, in all material respects, the financial position of the Company at December 31, 2025 and 2024, and the results of its operations and its cash flows for each of the three years in the period ended December 31, 2025, in conformity with U.S. generally accepted accounting principles.

We also have audited, in accordance with the standards of the Public Company Accounting Oversight Board (United States) (PCAOB), the Company's internal control over financial reporting as of December 31, 2025, based on criteria established in Internal Control—Integrated Framework issued by the Committee of Sponsoring Organizations of the Treadway Commission (2013 framework), and our report dated February 10, 2026 expressed an unqualified opinion thereon.

Basis for Opinion

These financial statements are the responsibility of the Company's management. Our responsibility is to express an opinion on the Company’s financial statements based on our audits. We are a public accounting firm registered with the PCAOB and are required to be independent with respect to the Company in accordance with the U.S. federal securities laws and the applicable rules and regulations of the Securities and Exchange Commission and the PCAOB.

We conducted our audits in accordance with the standards of the PCAOB. Those standards require that we plan and perform the audit to obtain reasonable assurance about whether the financial statements are free of material misstatement, whether due to error or fraud. Our audits included performing procedures to assess the risks of material misstatement of the financial statements, whether due to error or fraud, and performing procedures that respond to those risks. Such procedures included examining, on a test basis, evidence regarding the amounts and disclosures in the financial statements. Our audits also included evaluating the accounting principles used and significant estimates made by management, as well as evaluating the overall presentation of the financial statements. We believe that our audits provide a reasonable basis for our opinion.

Critical Audit Matter

The critical audit matter communicated below is a matter arising from the current period audit of the financial statements that was communicated or required to be communicated to the audit committee and that: (1) relates to accounts or disclosures that are material to the financial statements and (2) involved our especially challenging, subjective or complex judgments. The communication of the critical audit matter does not alter in any way our opinion on the consolidated financial statements, taken as a whole, and we are not, by communicating the critical audit matter below, providing a separate opinion on the critical audit matter or on the accounts or disclosures to which it relates.

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						Valuation of redeemable noncontrolling interest in S&P Dow Jones Indices LLC
Description of the Matter						As described in Notes 1 and 9 to the financial statements, the Company has an agreement with the minority partners of its S&P Dow Jones Indices LLC joint venture that contains redemption features outside of the control of the Company. This arrangement is reported as a redeemable noncontrolling interest at fair value of $4,914 million at December 31, 2025. The Company adjusts the redeemable noncontrolling interest each reporting period to its estimated redemption value, but never less than its initial fair value, using both income and market valuation approaches. Auditing the Company's valuation of its redeemable noncontrolling interest was complex due to the estimation uncertainty in determining the fair value. The estimation uncertainty was primarily due to the sensitivity of the fair value to underlying assumptions about the future performance of the business. The more significant judgmental assumptions used to estimate the value of the S&P Dow Jones Indices LLC joint venture include an estimated discount rate, a range of assumptions that form the basis of the expected future net cash flows (e.g., revenue growth rates and operating margins), a company specific beta and earnings and transaction multiples for comparable companies and similar acquisitions, respectively. These significant judgmental assumptions that incorporate market data are forward-looking and could be affected by future economic and market conditions.
How We Addressed the Matter in Our Audit						We obtained an understanding, evaluated the design, and tested the operating effectiveness of the Company’s controls over the accounting for its redeemable noncontrolling interest, including controls over management's judgments and evaluation of the underlying assumptions with regard to the valuation models applied and the estimation process supporting the determination of the fair value of S&P Dow Jones Indices LLC joint venture. To test the valuation of redeemable noncontrolling interest, we evaluated the Company's selection of the valuation methodology and the methods and significant assumptions used by inspecting available market data and performing sensitivity analyses. For example, when evaluating the assumptions related to the revenue growth rate and operating profit margins, we compared the assumptions to the past performance of S&P Dow Jones Indices LLC joint venture in addition to current observable industry, market and economic trends. We involved valuation specialists to assist in our evaluation of the methodology and significant assumptions used by the Company, including the discount rate, company specific beta and earnings for comparable companies and transaction multiples for similar acquisitions. We also tested the completeness and accuracy of the underlying data supporting the significant assumptions and estimates.

/s/ ERNST & YOUNG LLP

We have served as the Company’s auditor since 1969.

New York, New York

February 10, 2026

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Report of Independent Registered Public Accounting Firm

To the Shareholders and the Board of Directors of S&P Global Inc.

Opinion on Internal Control Over Financial Reporting

We have audited S&P Global Inc.’s internal control over financial reporting as of December 31, 2025, based on criteria established in Internal Control—Integrated Framework issued by the Committee of Sponsoring Organizations of the Treadway Commission (2013 framework), (the COSO criteria). In our opinion, S&P Global Inc. (the Company) maintained, in all material respects, effective internal control over financial reporting as of December 31, 2025, based on the COSO criteria.

We also have audited, in accordance with the standards of the Public Company Accounting Oversight Board (United States) (PCAOB), the consolidated balance sheets of the Company as of December 31, 2025 and 2024, the related consolidated statements of income, comprehensive income, equity and cash flows for each of the three years in the period ended December 31, 2025, and the related notes and financial statement schedule listed in the Index at Item 15(a)(2) and our report dated February 10, 2026 expressed an unqualified opinion thereon.

Basis for Opinion

The Company’s management is responsible for maintaining effective internal control over financial reporting and for its assessment of the effectiveness of internal control over financial reporting included in the accompanying Management’s Annual Report on Internal Control Over Financial Reporting. Our responsibility is to express an opinion on the Company’s internal control over financial reporting based on our audit. We are a public accounting firm registered with the PCAOB and are required to be independent with respect to the Company in accordance with the U.S. federal securities laws and the applicable rules and regulations of the Securities and Exchange Commission and the PCAOB.

We conducted our audit in accordance with the standards of the PCAOB. Those standards require that we plan and perform the audit to obtain reasonable assurance about whether effective internal control over financial reporting was maintained in all material respects.

Our audit included obtaining an understanding of internal control over financial reporting, assessing the risk that a material weakness exists, testing and evaluating the design and operating effectiveness of internal control based on the assessed risk, and performing such other procedures as we considered necessary in the circumstances. We believe that our audit provides a reasonable basis for our opinion.

Definition and Limitations of Internal Control Over Financial Reporting

A company’s internal control over financial reporting is a process designed to provide reasonable assurance regarding the reliability of financial reporting and the preparation of financial statements for external purposes in accordance with generally accepted accounting principles. A company’s internal control over financial reporting includes those policies and procedures that (1) pertain to the maintenance of records that, in reasonable detail, accurately and fairly reflect the transactions and dispositions of the assets of the company; (2) provide reasonable assurance that transactions are recorded as necessary to permit preparation of financial statements in accordance with generally accepted accounting principles, and that receipts and expenditures of the company are being made only in accordance with authorizations of management and directors of the company; and (3) provide reasonable assurance regarding prevention or timely detection of unauthorized acquisition, use, or disposition of the company’s assets that could have a material effect on the financial statements.

Because of its inherent limitations, internal control over financial reporting may not prevent or detect misstatements. Also, projections of any evaluation of effectiveness to future periods are subject to the risk that controls may become inadequate because of changes in conditions, or that the degree of compliance with the policies or procedures may deteriorate.

/s/ ERNST & YOUNG LLP

New York, New York

February 10, 2026

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Consolidated Statements of Income

(in millions, except per share data)

Year Ended December 31,

S&P Global Inc. 10-K